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EDUCATION 


EDUCATION 

AN   INTRODUCTION 

TO  ITS 

PRINCIPLES    AND    THEIR    PSYCHOLOGICAL 
FOUNDATIONS 


BY 

H.    HOllMAN,  M.A.  (Cantab.) 

FORMERLY   SCHOLAR  OF  GONVILLB  AHD  CAIUS  COLLEGE  AND  ONE  TIME 

PROFESSOR  OF  EDUCATION    AND  MASTER   OF   METHOD  AT   THE 

UNIVERSITY  COLLEGE  OF  WALES  ABERYSTWYTH 


NEW  YORK 

DODD,  MEAD   AND   COMPANY 

1896 


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'HI 


HARVAXD  UNIVaSVTY 
QRAOUATE  SCHCXX.Of  EDUCATION 


Copyright,  1896, 
By  Dodd,  Mead  and  Company. 


The  purpose  of  education  is  to  give  to  the  body 
and  to  the  soul  all  the  beauty  and  all  the  per' 
fection  of  which  they  are  capable. — Plato. 

The  gemral  problem  of  education  is  to  develop 
children  as  imperfect  beings  into  perfect  ones. 

Aristotle. 
Man  cannot  become  man,  save  through  educa- 
tion.— Kant. 

The  masters  of  education  hold  in  their  hands  thi 
future  of  the  worW.— Leibnitz. 


PREFACE 


My  aim  throughout  this  book  is  to  give  the  beginner  a 
clear  and  intelligible  outline  of  education,  as  a  science 
only,  and  at  the  same  time  to  suggest,  but  not  to  discuss, 
some  of  its  deeper  and  more  philosophic  aspects.  I  hope, 
therefore,  that  it  will  prove  both  more  and  less  than  an 
ordinary  text-book.  More,  in  that  I  have  attempted  to 
discuss,  rather  than  dogmatise  about,  the  principles  of 
education  and  their  origin ;  and  less,  inasmuch  as  I 
have  carefully  avoided  summing  up  every  important 
point  in  a  formula.  Those  who  are  likely  to  read  this 
book  will,  I  feel  sure,  prefer  to  do  their  own  work  in 
their  own  way. 

The  general  conception  of  the  book  is,  so  far  as  I  am 
aware,  an  entirely  original  one.  I  am  fully  conscious 
of  the  fact  that  the  attempt  to  set  forth  a  pure  science 
of  education,  in  the  sense  in  which  I  believe  that  it 
should,  and  can,  be  done,  can  at  the  present  moment 
prove,  at  best,  but  a  more  or  less  helpful  suggestion 
towards  a  more  perfect  solution  of  tlie  problem.  No 
one  could  be  more  anxious  or  eager  to  see  such  a  result 
than  myself.  That  this  book  should  in  any  way  con- 
tribute to  it  would  be  a  great  joy  and  gratification  to 


VI  PREFACE 

me.  Even  should  it  do  so  at  the  cost  of  its  own 
pretensions,  this  would,  I  trust,  be  only  a  pleasing 
regret  to  the  fond  author  of  its  being. 

My  ideal  has  been  a  very  high  one,  for  I  have  striven 
to  find  a  scientific  basis  for  pure  educational  theory, 
and  to  directly  and  systematically  develop  therefrom 
the  great  educational  principles ;  thus  deriving  that 
body  of  definite  and  dependent  educational  truths 
which  constitutes  the  science  of  education. 

The  evolutionary  principle  is  taken  as  the  unifying 
element,  and  my  endeavour  has  been  to  show  that 
the  great  educationists,  from  Plato  and  Aristotle  to 
Comenius,  and  from  Comenius  to  Herbart  and  Spencer, 
have  all  been  working  towards  such  an  organism  of 
knowledge. 

How  far  I  have  succeeded  in  so  ambitious  an  attempt 
I  must  leave  my  readers  and  critics  to  determine.  My 
original  indebtedness  to  the  great  writers  on  education 
is,  of  course,  incalculable;  but  I  should  like  to  add 
that  I  worked  out  my  general  view  of  the  science 
quite  independently,  and  afterwards  appealed  to  the 
standard  works  for  authoritative  confirmation  of  my 
conclusions.  The  authors  to  whose  writings  I  have 
referred  are  mentioned  in  the  text,  and  most  of  the 
books  are  included  in  the  list  at  the  end  of  the  volume. 

I  venture  to  anticipate  what  I  cannot  but  consider  as 
captious  criticism,  by  protesting  that  I  am  no  "  arm- 
chair theorist."  I  have  been  a  practical  teacher  for 
nearly  a  quarter  of  a  century ;  and  my  experience  has 
included  the  teaching  of  infants :  of  boys  and  girls  in 
elementary   and  secondary    schools,    and    in    private 


PREFACE  Vll 

families :  and  of  men  and  women  at  a  University,  and  a 
University  College.  I  have  taught  an  East  End  gamin 
the  elements  of  the  three  E's,  and  have  coached 
students  for  honours  examinations  at  Cambridge  and 
other  Universities.  And  I  have  had  charge  of  the 
training  of  teachers,  and  a  short  experience  as  an 
inspector  of  schools. 

It  is  from  reflection  upon  the  meaning  of  such  expe- 
riences, which  at  least  ought  to  be  instructive  and 
helpful,  and  from  a  study  of  writings  on  education  and  of 
the  mental  sciences,  that  I  have  endeavoured  to  formulate 
what  seem  to  me  to  b6  the  great  central  truths  of  a 
pure  science  of  education. 

More  directly  this  book  is  the  outcome  of  lectures 
given  to  students  in  the  Day  Training  Department  of  the 
University  College  of  Wales,  Aberystwyth :  a  Teachers* 
Holiday  Course  at  the  University  Extension  College, 
Exeter :  and  the  University  Extension  Students'  Sum- 
mer Meeting  at  Oxford.  I  should  be  very  glad  to 
think  that  it  might  be  of  some  slight  use  to  those  who 
heard  my  lectures,  and  so  prove  some  apology  for  many 
shortcomings  in  them. 

I  have  endeavoured  to  observe,  as  far  as  I  could 
those  educational  principles  which  I  have  laid  down  as 
applying  to  the  writing  of  text- books;  and,  as  my 
readers  will  find,  I  have  not  hesitated  to  avail  myself 
of  "  the  principle  of  repetition." 

Since  we,  unfortunately,  have  no  convenient  word  in 
the  English  language  which  signifies  both  "he"  and 
"  she,"  I  have  been  obliged,  reluctantly,  to  continue  the 
egotism  of  my  sex,  and  always  to  speak  of  "  man  "  and 


Vlll  PREFACE 

"  he."  But  I  should  like  it  to  be  clearly  understood 
that  "woman  "  and  "she"  may  be  read,  in  such  places, 
by  whoever  so  wills. 

I  will  only  add  that,  whilst  I  would  not  echo  the 
delightfully  quaint  and  ingenuous  sentiment  of  an  old 
writer  on  education,  who  thus  concludes  his  preface: 
"  If  any  man  shall  oppose,  and  detract  from  these  my 
labours ;  forasmuch,  as  he  shall  therein  (as  I  take  it) 
shew  himself  an  enemy  to  the  common  good  of  the 
present  age,  and  of  all  posterity  (the  benefit  whereof, 
as  God  is  my  witness,  I  have  intended  principally  in 
these  my  endeavours),  I  can  but  be  sorry,  and  pray  for 
him  ;*'  I  can,  on  the  other  hand,  most  heartily  subscribe 
to  him  when  he  says,  **  I  oppose  myself  to  none.  Shew 
my  oversight  in  love,  and  I  will  amend  it.  I  prescribe 
to  none :  no,  not  the  meanest ;  but  only  desire  to  learn 
of  all  the  learned,  to  help  the  unlearned." 

H.  H. 

WooDFOBD  Gbeen,  September  189& 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER  I 

PAGE 

The  Natubb  and  Soopb  op  Education       ...        1 

Origin  of  Bdncation,  1 — Scope  of  EdncatioD,  9— Defini- 
tion of  Bdncation,  20— Function  of  Education,  32 — Ideas 
of  Great  Thinkers,  38— Educational  Ends,  41 


CHAPTER  II 

Mind,  and  the  General  Nature  of  Mental  Life    .      42 

»  What  Hind  is,  42 — Mind  Elements,  45— ^jteneral  Nature 
of  Mind,  48 — ^Definitions  of  Psychology  and  Mind,  51 
— How  to  Study  Mind,  52 — Sensations  and  Presentations, 
53— Feeling,  55— Emotion,  58— Passion,  59— Feeling  as 
Egoistic  and  Altruistic,  60 — ^Knowing,  63 — Attention,  64 
— Pre-adjustment  of  Attention,  66 — Memory,  67 — Sub- 
consciousness, 69  —  Association,  71  —  Attention  and 
Association,  73 — ^Willing,  75 — Active  and  Passive  Willing, 
77 — Spontaneous  or  Automatic  Willing,  77 — Instinctive 
WilKng,  79— Elements  of  Willing,  81— Habit,  85— Char- 
acter and  Individuality,  86 — The  Normal,  87 


X  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  III 

PAGE 

Genebal  Principles  of  Education  ...      88 

Growth  and  Development,  89 — The  Principle  of  Stimnla- 
tion,  89— The  Principle  of  Nourishment,  94 — The  Prin- 
ciple of  Pleasure,  97 — The  Principle  of  Inter-relation,  and 
Inter-dependence,  100— Educational  Values,  107 — Disci- 
pline Value,  108— Culture  Value,  112— Utility  Value,  113 
— The  Principle  of  Repetition,  117— 1  he  Principle  of 
Preparation,  119— The  Principle  of  Interest,  122— The 
Principle  of  Habituation,  132 -The  Principle  of  Self- 
Activity,  137 — The  Inter-relation  of  the  Principles,  14.*>- 
8ome  General  Remarks,  li'' 

CHAPTER  IV 

The  General  Characteristics  op  Mental  Develop- 
ment       153 

The  General  Nature  of  Mental  Development,  156— The 
Development  of  Feeling,  160— Of  Knowing,  172— Of 
Willing,  181 — Some  General  Remarks  on  Development,  1 97  , 


CHAPTER  V 
General  Principles  of  Education  (continued)        •    201 

The  Principle  of  Development :  (1)  From  the  Known  to 
the  Unknown,  202  — (2)  From  the  Simple  to  the 
Complex,  207— (3)  From  the  Concrete  to  the  Abstract, 
212— The  Principle  of  Doing,  224— The  Principle  of 
Sympathetic  Control,  236— The  Principle  of  Pain,  266 — 
Some  General  Remarks,  266 


CONTENTS  XI 

CHAPTER  VI 

PAOB 

The  Development  of  Ideas    .....    275 

General  Development  of  Ideas,  277 — The  Elements  of 
Ideas,  284— (1)  Presentations,  285— (2)  Percepts,  290— 
(3)  Concepts,  300 — Ideas  and  Attention,  Apperception, 
307— Ideas  and  Language,  312 — l:iome  General  Remarks, 
818 

CHAPl'ER  VII 

General  Peinciples  of  Education  (continttecC)        •    822 

The  Principle  of  Development,  322— (1)  From  the  Concrete 
to  the  Abstract,  322— (2)  From  Particular  to  General,  328 
— ^The  Principle  of  Analysis  and  Synthesis,  335— The 
Principle  of  Symbolism,  351 — Some  General  Remarks, 
364 

CHAPTER  VIII 

The  Development  of  Knowledge    ....    868 

Sources  of  Knowledge,  368— (1)  Intuition,  369— (2)  Reflec- 
tion, 374— (3)  Communication,  374 — Stages  of  Develop- 
ment in  Knowledge,  380  -  (1)  Clear  Knowledge,  385— (2) 
Distinct  Knowledge,  387— (3)  Adequate  Knowledge,  389 


CHAPTER  IX 

Genebal  Principles  of  Education  {continiied)         •    892 

The  Principle  of  Development,  392— (1)  From  the  Con- 
crete to  the  Abstract,  393— (2)  From  the  Known  to  the 
Unknown.  393— (3)  From  the  Simple  to  the  Complex, 


XU  CONTENTS 

395— (4)  From  the  Particular  to  the  General,  399— (5) 
From  the  Indefinite  to  the  Definite,  401 — The  Principle 
of  Information,  409 — The  Principle  of  Symbolism,  417 — 
The  Principle  of  Gradation,  425— Some  General  Remarks, 
433 


CHAPTER  X 

Determinants  op  Mental  Growth  and  Development  438 

General  Determinants,  438 — Original  Character  of  the 
Human  Being,  444  —  (1)  Racial  Elements,  445  —  (2) 
Individual  Elements,  448— Experiences,  452  — (1)  Envi- 
ronment, 452— (2)  Stimuli,  459 


CHAPTER  XI 
General  Principlbs  op  Education  (continiLecC)        .    461 

The  Principle  of  OoUectivism,  463 — The  Average  and  the 
Normal,  474 — The  Principle  of  Individualism,  475 — The 
Principle  of  Proportion,  489 — The  Principle  of  Pleasure, 
496 — The  Principle  of  Inter-dependence  and  Inter-relation, 
503— Some  General  Remarks,  518 


APPENDIX 
A  Short  List  of  Books 523 

INDEX  .,,»•,,,  525 


EDUCATION 

CHAPTER  I 

THE  NATUKE  AND  SCOPE  OF  EDUCATION 

In  beginning  the  study  of  any  subject  it  is  well  to  have 
some  clear  and  accurate  general  ideas  about  the  kind 
of  things  with  which  we  shall  have  to  deal ;  and  why, 
and  how,  there  has  come  to  be  a  body  of  knowledge  in 
connection  with  such  a  subject.  Since  then,  we  are 
about  to  consider  the  science  of  education,  we  will  first 
ask,  and  endeavour  to  answer,  the  question :  "  What  is 
the  science  of  education,  and  what  is  its  origin  ?  " 

Origin  of  Education.  — Let  us  begin  by  discussing  the 
origin  of  education.  Like  all  sciences,  education  has 
grown  out  of  the  knowledge  which  comes  from  the 
everyday  experiences  of  what  we  call  ordinary  facts. 
There  were  children  to  be  dealt  with,  and  it  was 
necessary  that  they  should  learn  to  do  certain  things 
for  themselves,  both  for  their  own  sakes,  and  for  the 
convenience  and  comfort  of  their  parents.  Also  per- 
sons of  all  ages  found  it  profitable  to  learn  from  each 
other  how  to  do  certain  actions,  and  would,  therefore, 


2  .  EDUCATION 

notice, and  remember,  those  ways  in  which  it  was  easiest 
to  show,  and  to  learn,  how  to  do  these  things. 

Thus  there  would  come  to  be  traditional  methods 
of  what  we  now  speak  of  as  instruction.  But  these 
would  have  little,  if  anything,  of  a  plan  or  system  in 
them.  That  is  to  say,  primitive  man  would,  as  a  rule, 
set  about  showing  a  child  or  adult,  how  to  do  a  certain 
action,  or  would  tell  him  some  piece  of  information 
about  a  certain  object,  only  when  the  actual  necessity 
arose. 

But  later  on  in  the  history  of  the  race,  when  the  life 
of  a  tribe  or  a  nation  became  more  complex ;  when  it 
was  no  longer  possible  for  a  man  (or  family)  to  do 
everything  for  himself,  in  the  way  of  providing  all  he 
needed,  i.  e.,  when  there  arose  the  practice  of  one 
man  making,  or  providing,  one  kind  of  commodity 
only,  and  exchanging  this  for  other  things  which  he 
desired,  which  were  produced  by  other  persons,  who 
similarly  confined  their  efforts  to  the  production  of 
particular  objects  —  when,  in  the  words  of  economics, 
division  of  labour  had  arisen  —  then  it  was  seen  to  be 
a  good  thing  to  have  young  people  constantly  assisting 
at  some  one  of  the  dififerent  occupations,  so  that  they 
might  both  help  the  capable  workers,  and  themselves 
in  time  become  such,  by  the  aid  of  information  and 
imitation. 

Instruction  would  thus  become  much  more  definite 
and  connected,  but  it  would  still  be  far  from  anything 
like  a  clear  and  comprehensive  system. 

So  far,  however,  there  is  little  more  than  a  rule-of- 
thumb  way  of  showing  how  certain  actions  are  per- 


NATURE  AND  SCOPE  3 

formed,  and  of  giving  information  to  those  who  are 
young,  or  ignorant  of  some  particular  subject  When, 
however,  a  written  language  has  been  invented,  and 
the  stores  of  practical  knowledge  are  recorded  in 
writing,  it  becomes  easier  to  get  some  knowledge  by 
reading  than  by  talking,  and  it  is  therefore  necessary 
to  teach  the  young,  and  others,  the  meaning  of  the 
written  signs.  Now,  this  work  of.  teaching  the  use 
and  meaning  of  writing  to  all  the  children  of  a  family 
would  soon  become  a  heavy  burden  to  the  parents, 
and  would  seriously  interfere  with  the  work  by 
which  most  of  them  would  obtain  their  means  of 
living. 

Hence  would  arise  those  who  made  it  their  special 
work  in  life  to  impart  as  much  knowledge  as  possible  to 
the  young  people  who  might  be  given  over  to  their 
charge  for  such  a  purpose.  In  this  way  we  arrive  at 
the  schoolmaster  and  the  school. 

The  schoolmaster  in  primitive  times  was  the 
priest,  for  he  was  the  person  who  had  both  learning 
and  leisure,  and  a  particular  interest  in  imparting 
knowledge. 

A  very  interesting  illustration  of  this  sort  of  thing 
in  a  primitive  race  is  given  in  H.  E.  Schoolcraft's  book 
on  **  The  Indian  in  his  Wigwam. "  In  speaking  of 
dancing  as  a  national  institution,  he  says :  "  Public 
opinion  is  called  to  pressing  objects  by  a  dance,  at 
which  addresses  are  made,  and  in  fact,  moral  instruc- 
tion and  advice  are  given  to  the  young,  in  the 
course  of  their  being  assembled  at  social  feasts  and 
dances. " 


4  EDUCATION 

He  also  points  out  that  the  priests,  or  medicine  men, 
are  the  learned  persons  in  these  savage  tribes.  He 
isays :  "  The  priests  and  prophets  have,  more  than  any 
other  class,  cultivated  their  national  songs  and  dances. 
.  .  They  are  generally  the  composers  of  the  songs, 
and  the  leaders  in  the  dance  and  ceremonies,  and  it 
is  found  that  their  memories  are  the  best  stored,  not 
only  with  the  sacred  songs  and  chants,  but  also  with 
the  traditions  and  general  lore  of  the  tribes.  "  He  also 
mentions  that  the  priests  cultivated  the  art  of  picture- 
writing,  and  used  it  as  a  system  of  mnemonics  for  their 
medicine  and  mystical  songs. 

The  following  is  his  account  of  an  instruction  dance : 

"  There  is,  however,  another  feast  instituted,  at  cer- 
tain times  during  the  [winter]  season,  to  which  young 
persons  only  are  invited,  or  admitted,  except  the  enter- 
tainer and  his  wife,  and  generally  two  other  aged  per- 
sons, who  preside  over  the  feast  and  administer  its 
rites.  The  object  of  this  feast  seems  to  be  instruction, 
to  which  the  young  and  thoughtless  are  induced  to 
listen  for  the  anticipated  pleasure  of  the  feast. 

**  Before  this  feast  commences,  the  entertainer,  or 
some  person  fluent  in  speech,  whom  he  has  selected  for 
the  purpose,  gets  up  and  addresses  the  youth  of  both 
sexes  on  the  subject  of  their  course  through  life.  He 
admonishes  them  to  be  attentive  and  respectful  to  the 
aged,  and  to  adhere  to  their  counsels  :  never  to  scoff  at 
the  decrepit,  deformed,  or  blind :  to  obey  their  parents  : 
to  fear  and  love  the  Great  Spirit,  who  is  the  giver  of  life 
and  every  good  gift.  These  precepts  are  dwelt  upon  at 
great  length,  and  generally  enforced  by  the  examples 


U^ATURB  AND   800FE  5 

of  a  ^ood  man  and  woman  and  a  bad  man  and  woman, 
and  after  drawing  the  latter,  it  is  ever  the  custom  to 
say :  *  You  will  be  like  one  of  these ! '  At  the  end  of 
every  sentence,  the  listeners  make  a  general  cry  of  ha6. 
When  the  advice  is  finished,  an  address,  or  kind  of 
prayer  to  the  Great  Spirit  is  made,  in  which  he  is 
thanked  for  the  food  before  them,  and  for  the  continu- 
ance of  life.  The  speaker  then  says :  '  Thus  the  Great 
Spirit  supplies  us  with  food ;  act  justly  and  conduct 
well,  and  you  will  ever  be  thus  bountifully  supplied/ 
The  feast  then  commences,  and  the  elders  relax  their 
manner  and  mix  with  the  rest,  but  are  still  careful  to 
preserve  order,  and  a  decent,  respectful  behaviour 
among  the  guests." 

The  element  of  material  reward  :  the  experience  and 
special  selection  of  the  speaker :  the  general  responses 
of  the  listeners :  the  regulated  formality  of  the  proceed- 
ings :  the  ethical  character  of  the  instruction :  the 
appeal  to  concrete  illustrations :  the  religious  observ- 
ance :  and  the  dignified  unbendinga  of  the  elders  so  as 
to  share,  whilst  they  control,  the  pleasures  of  the  youth, 
and  thus  cultivate  friendly  personal  acquaintance  with 
their  pupils :  are  all  points  full  of  interest  and  sugges- 
tiveness,  and  they  strikingly  correspond,  in  a  broad  sense, 
with  some  of  the  features  of  the  school-life  of  to-day. 

The  work  of  the  teacher  would  still  be  very  unsyste- 
matic. He  would  constantly  be  blindly  trying  to  find 
out  some  way  of  doing  what  he  wished  ;  and  after  many 
failures  he  might  be  so  fortunate  as  to  hit  upon  a  satis- 
factory method  of  bringing  about  what  was  desired 
In  the  course  of  time  such  successes  would  practically 


6  EDUCATION 

provide  the  means  of  securinsr  all  the  results  which 
he  was  concerned  to  obtain.  Then  such  methods 
woiild  be  likely  to  become  traditional.  Others  who 
wished  to  do  the  same  kind  of  work  would  learn 
from  him,  or  copy  his  methods,  and  so  a  more  or  less 
complete  and  effective  body  of  rules  would  be  recog- 
nised as  best  fitted  to  bring  about  certain  practical 
results.  In  this  way  would  be  developed  the  art  of 
teaching,  in  its  most  primitive  form. 

Thus  we  find  that  in  the  earliest  civilisation  of  which 
we  have  any  historical  knowledge,  viz.,  the  Babylonian, 
there  was  a  series  of  tablets  specially  designed  to  teach 
the  young  and  ignorant.  These  tablets  began  with 
syllabaries  or  spelling-tablets,  which  were  followed  by 
tablets  of  phrases,  and  completed  with  tablets  of  general 
information.  In  the  early  history  of  China  a  book  was 
written  which  gave  detailed  instructions  as  to  what  was 
to  be  taught  to  boys  and  girls  during  particular  years 
of  their  lives.  In  the  early  days  of  Hindu  civilisa- 
tion the  details  of  the  method  of  oral  teaching  became 
traditional  and  authoritative,  and  are  described  in  their 
sacred  books. 

The  art  is,  at  such  a  stage,  purely  empirical,  being 
based  entirely  upon  what  practical  experience  has 
shown  to  be  the  most  successful  way  of  acting  so  as  to 
cause  children  and  others,  to  acquire  knowledge  in  the 
easiest,  quickest,  and  most  effective  way.  It  is  also 
unorganised,  for  the  rules  ai'e  not  put  in  such  an  order, 
and  so  related  to  each  other,  that  they  each  bring  about 
thoir  proper  results  in  the  best  form  and  at  the  best 
time:  thus   providing  for,    depending   upon,   and   co^ 


NATURE  AND   SCOPE  7 

operating  with  each  other,  in  such  a  way  that  the  final 
result  is  as  complete  and  perfect  as  possible — ^in  a 
similar  way  to  that  in  which  the  parts  of  a  watch  are 
connected  with,  dependent  npon,  and  co-active  with, 
each  other  in  bringing  about  a  perfect  measurement  of 
time.  But  the  art  is  more  or  less  systematic,  for  there 
is  some  recognised  order  of  doing  things,  both  with 
regard  to  the  complete  series  of  actions,  and  also  with 
regard  to  the  details  of  each  particular  action,  however 
imperfect  or  mistaken  such  order  may  be. 

The  art  becomes  more  and  more  developed  and  syste- 
matic, through  the  discoveries  of  intelligent  workers  as 
time  goes  on ;  but  it  will  remain  for  some  time  in  the 
purely  empirical  stage.  Men  know  how  to  bring  about 
certain  eflEects,  long  before  they  know  exactly  why  those 
effects  are  brought  about  by  their  actions.  The  former 
sort  of  knowledge  is  often  the  result  of  happy  accidents, 
but  the  latter  can  only  come  from  a  thorough  investiga- 
tion into  the  nature  of  things,  and  the  discovery  of  the 
general  laws  or  principles  which  underlie  their  activities 
and  interactivities,  i.e.,  we  must  find  out  what  are  the 
sepai*ate  parts  of  an  object,  what  are  the  qualities  it 
possesses,  what  are  the  various  things  it  can  do  and  be^ 
and  how  it  responds  to  all  kinds  of  influences  which 
affect  it.  When  we  have  such  a  knowledge  of  any 
class  of  objects,  and  have  organised  it  in  the  sense 
already  described,  we  term  such  a  body  of  knowledge  a 
science. 
/  It  will  be  clear  that  scientific  knowledge  can  in  the 
first  instance  only  come  through  actual  experience  of 
things,  and  is  therefore  very  likely  to  arise  in  connec- 


8  EDUCATION 

tion  with  an  art.  For  not  only  does  an  art  require  a 
more  or  less  systematic  practical  knowledge  of  objects, 
and  what  it  is  possible  to  do  with  them,  but  the  greater 
the  knowledge  of  the  objects  the  more  can  the  art  be 
improved  and  extended.  It  is  only  as  men  discover 
the  right  way  of  acting  that  they  obtain  what  they 
want.  Now  the  right  way  is  that  way  which  is  most 
in  accord  with  the  nature  and  powers  of  the  object 
which  is  being  acted  upon. 

For  example,  if  we  have  a  piece  of  clay,  a  piece  of 
wood,  and  a  piece  of  iron,  each  of  which  we  wish  to 
cause  to  take  a  certain  shape,  the  more  we  know  of  the 
nature  of  each  the  easier  will  it  be  to  effect  our  pur- 
pose. If  we  have  thoroughly  investigated  the  qualities 
of  each,  we  shall  know  that  water,  steam,  and  fire  will 
make  each  of  them,  respectively,  ductile;  and  that, 
when  they  have  been  subjected  to  such  influences,  a 
sufficient  amount  of  pressure  properly  applied  will 
cause  them  to  take  almost  any  shape. 

Such  a  truth  would  force  itself  upon  the  most 
earnest,  thoughtful,  and  original  of  those  who  practised 
the  art ;  and  they  would  do  all  they  could  to  obtain 
the  deeper  and  wider  knowledge  which  would  give 
them  more  power  and  more  opportunity.  In  the 
history  of  education  such  men  as  Comenius,  Pestalozzi, 
Froebel,  Locke,  Eousseau,  &c.,  have  done  this  sort  of 
work.  In  this  way  there  has  come  to  be  a  body  of 
knowledge  of  the  nature  and  powers  of  the  things 
which  we  have  to  do  with  in  education  which  has  been 
more  or  less  completely  organised,  and  forms  the 
science  of  education. 


1^ 


NATURE   AND   SCOPE  9 

When  a  sciencse  has  been  developed,  generally 
through  an  art,  then  the  art  itself  takes  its  highest 
form  ;  for  there  is  no  longer  the  mere  groping  in  the 
dark,  but  a  clear-sighted  knowledge  of  what  powers 
and  influences  we  can  use,  and  what  will  be  the  best 
way  in  which  to  ase  them  so  as  to  make  the  powers  of 
the  object  acted  upon  so  to  respond  as  to  produce  just 
those  results  we  desire,  in  their  greatest  perfection  and 
amount.  One  of  the  best  illustrations  of  this  will  be 
found  in  the  medical  art  of  to-day  as  compared  with 
that  of  even  twenty  years  ago,  whilst  as  compared  with 
that  of  a  hundred  years  ago  the  advance  is  simply 
marvellous;  and  this  progress  is  mainly  due  to  the 
great  development  of  the  sciences  of  physiology, 
anatomy,  biology,  chemistry,  &c.  &c. 

The  science  of  education  has  been  the  slowest  in  its 
development,  owing  to  the  slow  progress  in  one  of  the 
sciences  of  mind,  viz.,  psychology.  So  also  the  art  of 
teaching  has  necessarily  been  tardy  in  its  growth.  Now, 
however,  the  art  is  rapidly  extending  and  improving, 
owing  to  the  great  strides  which  have  been  taken  in  the 
advance  of  psychology,  and  also  to  the  general  recogni- 
tion that  not  only  must  all  arts  be  based  upon  scientific 
truths,  but  that  they  are  most  effectively  practised  by 
those  who  have  the  proper  scientific  knowledge. 
Hence  it  is  that  technical  education  (so-called),  tech- 
nical colleges,  scientific  training,  &c.,  are  so  much 
advocated  by  earnest  and  thoughtful  people. 

The  Scope  of  Education. — Next  let  us  inquire  into  the 
scope  of  education.  We  must  fix  upon  what  things  we 
have  to  deal  with,  in  what  sense,  and,  as  far  as  is  possible, 


10  EDUCATION 

to  what  extent.  We  say  "  fix  upon,"  because,  although 
there  are  great  obvious  distinctions  in  nature,  yet  the 
exact  points  at  which  we  hold  these  difierences  to 
begin  and  end  are,  after  all,  entirely  in  our  own  choice ; 
and,  so  far  as  these  limits  are  concerned,  purely  arbi- 
trary. There  are  no  absolute  divisions  in  nature, 
though  there  are  infinite  difierences  upon  which  divi- 
sions can  be  based.  We  can  to  a  certain  extent 
include  as  much  or  as  little  as  we  please  in  any 
division,  and  can  call  it  by  whatever  name  we  choose. 
But,  once  having  fixed  these  limits,  we  are  then  bound 
by  our  knowledge  of  the  nature  and  relations  of  the 
things  themselves. 

Some  account  of  the  different  ideas  of  the  scope  of 
education  which  have  prevailed  at  different  times  will 
emphasise  this  point,  and  will  help  us  more  clearly  to 
define  our  own  position.  It  must  always  be  the  case 
that  education  is  directly  related  to  practical  life ;  for, 
after  all,  it  is  our  life  and  well-being  which  we  are 
always  trying  to  further  in  all  our  actions. 

The  earliest  form  and  object  of  education  were 
naturally  the  domestic.  The  aim  was  to  fit  the  child 
for  the  family  life  by  such  training  and  telling  as  would 
be  sufficient  for  the  purpose.  This  would  of  course 
involve  very  little  more  than  an  occasional  act  of 
guidance  on  the  part  of  the  parents,  as  the  instinctive 
and  imitative  power  of  the  child  would  be  sufficient 
to  enable  it  to  acquire  most  of  the  knowledge  and 
modes  of  action  required  in  the  primitive  life  of  the 
race.  As  civilisation  advanced,  the  parents  would  have 
to  do  much  more  in  the  way  of  guidance,  and  the  child 


NATURE   AND   SCOPE  11 

would  have  to  make  greater  mental  efforts,  with  the 
result  that  there  would  be  some  increase  of  the  general 
mental  powers. 

This  domestic  education  would,  however,  only  be  a 
part  of  a  more  general  edacation  which  would  follow 
it,  and  for  which  it  would  largely  prepare,  viz.,  the 
tribal  or  national  education.  The  life  of  the  family 
was  only  a  part  of  the  life  of  the  community.  Hence 
the  chief  aim  would  be  to  fit  the  individual  for  taking 
his  part  in  the  collective  life ;  for  not  only  would  the 
general  life  be  dependent  upon  the  power  and  fitness 
with  which  each  was  able  to  take  part  in  it,  but  the 
individual  life  would  be  almost  wholly  dependent  upon 
the  collective  life  for  its  existence  and  general  well- 
being.  This  is  especially  true  of  the  primitive  tribal 
life,  and  is  evidenced  by  the  extreme  rigour  and 
severity  of  its  forms  of  government.  Thus  in  ancient 
Persia,  which  may  be  described  as  a  military  nation, 
the  youths  were  taught  running,  shooting  with  the 
bow,  javelin-throwing,  stone-slinging,  riding,  hunting, 
the  making  of  long  marches,  the  foraging  for  food, 
farming,  digging  for  roots,  and  the  making  of  fight- 
ing and  hunting  implements.  So  they  provided  for 
their  public  and  private  life,  and  made  each  a  help 
to  the  other.  Similarly  in  ancient  China  the  youths 
were  carefully  taught  the  details  of  the  duties  and 
etiquette  of  private  and  public  life;  and  the  girls 
learnt  from  governesses  how  to  manage  all  the  affairs 
of  the  house,  how  to  make  silks  and  garments,  and 
how  to  behave.  The  need  of  such  teaching  is  brought 
home  to  us  in  the  present  day  by  the  disastrous  effects 


12  EDUCATION 

of  social  strife,  and  it  is  recognised  that  education  for 
citizenship  is  of  the  first  importance  to  the  welfare  of  a 
nation. 

The  next  great  general  phase  of  education  is  what 
we  may  call  professional  education.  When  division  of 
labour  arose,  then  education  would  take  a  more  special 
and  individual  form.  In  the  form  of  what  we  now  term 
apprenticeship,  and  in  ordinary  and  special  schools, 
there  would  be  a  special  preparation  for  special  work 
and  interests.  Previous  to  this  stage  of  development 
in  the  history  of  the  race,  every  individual  would, 
roughly,  have  much  the  same  kind  of  things  to  do,  as 
all  were  workers  and  fighters,  though  some  were 
leaders  and  others  followers.  This  special  form  of  educa- 
tion would  apply  throughout  the  tribe  or  nation.  The 
difierent  trades  had  their  regular  apprentices,  the 
priesthood  had  its  novices,  the  knights  had  their 
squires,  &c. 

It  is  interesting  to  notice  that,  in  both  ancient  Egypt 
and  China,  whilst  education  was  literary  in  its  charac- 
ter, success  in  the  schools  was  the  recognised  qualifica- 
tion for  all  official  posts.  In  modern  times  we  find 
that  Pestalozzi's  first  notion  of  education  was  to  train 
children  in  farm-work. 

All  that  education  meant  with  regard  to  the  fore- 
going would  be  the  training  in  doing,  and  the  telling 
of  items  of  information,  and  was  thus  chiefly  of  the 
nature  of  what  is  known  as  technical  education.  There 
was  no  scientific  knowledge,  in  the  sense  in  which  we 
understand  it,  though  there  was  much  of  the  elements 
of  sound   philosophy   amongst  the   chosen   few;    and 


NATURE   AND   SCOPE  13 

there  could  not,  therefore,  be  much  in  the  way  of 
scientific  explanation  and  demonstration  in  teaching. 

So  long  as  life  remained  comparatively  simple  and 
limited,  it  was  easy  and  economical  to  make  education 
a  part  of  the  ordinary  life  ;  but  when  life  became  more 
and  more  complex  and  varied,  education  became  more 
and  more  separated  from  the  ordinary  life,  and  was 
transformed  into  a  definite  and  more  or  less  systematic 
preparation  for  the  practical  life  of  the  adult. 

To  this  end  children  were  taught  something  of  the 
arts  of  reading,  writing,  and  figuring;  a  good  deal 
about  the  literature  of  their  own  country  (in  ancient 
times),  or  of  other  countries  (in  mediaBval  and  modem 
times),  since  it  was  the  best  source  of  general  infor- 
mation, and  of  anything  approaching  special  knowledge 
on  individual  subjects ;  and  with  these  they  learnt 
more  or  less  of  the  arts  and  athletics  of  the  times. 
But  there  was  very  great  variety  with  regard  to  details, 
in  different  countries  and  at  different  times ;  and  also 
there  were  very  different  objects  in  view,  according  as 
the  administrative  power  was  religious  or  secular,  local 
or  national,  private  or  public.  This  stage  we  may  call 
the  period  of  liberal  education,  inasmuch  as  the  curri- 
culum was  somewhat  general,  and  the  aim  was  more  or 
less  free  from  any  special  training  for  a  particular  voca- 
tion. Such  a  stage  of  development  was  reached  in  the 
history  of  ancient  Babylonia,  Egypt,  and  China. 

At  this  stage  of  development  education  has  practi- 
cally remained  up  to  the  present  day.  For,  although 
individual  discoverers,  philosophers,  and  scientists,  have 
recognised   and    expounded    the    truths    of  scientific 


14  EDUCATION 

education,  ttere  has  been  nothing  approaching  a 
general  recognition  of  these  truths,  and  much  less  any 
endeavour  systematically  to  make  use  of  them  in  teach- 
ing, till  within  the  last  few  years.  Teaching  as  an  art 
has  made  many  departures,  and  has  accumulated  a  vast 
amount  of  practical  wisdom,  numerous  traditional 
methods,  and  great  successes.  The  materials  contained 
in  these  are  just  those  which  are  necessary  for  the 
forming  of  a  science,  but  at  the  same  time  they  present 
the  most  serious  obstacles  to  its  success,  for  none  are 
more  difficult  to  convince  than  those  prejudiced  by  the 
practical  success  of  traditional  usages,  and  no  barrier  is 
more  difficult  to  surmount  than  a  machinery  which  is 
the  growth  of  centuries. 

There  is  an  immense  literature  of  school  text-books, 
of  books  on  school  methods,  organisation  and  govern- 
ment, of  writings  on  the  function  of  schools  in  relation 
to  religion,  the  state,  social  life,  &c.,  and  of  biographies 
and  histories  of  men  and  movements  connected  with 
education.  These  make  for  the  earnest  student,  a  rich 
mine  wherein  he  may  find  the  true  ore  from  which 
comes  the  pure  gold  of  truth;  but  there  is  much  that 
is  worthless,  much  that  simply  hinders,  and  not  a  little 
that  is  utterly  false  and  misleading,  which  must  first 
be  cleared  away. 

How  then,  out  of  these  materials,  has  come  the 
science  of  education  ?  We  may  say,  in  general  terms, 
that  after  men  have  learnt,  through  what  their  senses 
tell  them,  of  the  parts,  powers  and  practical  value,  of 
certain  kinds  of  things,  they  go  on,  by  the  aid  of  their 
higher  powers  of  judgment  and  knowing,  to  understand 


NATURE   AND   SCOPE  15 

—in  a  more  or  less  complete  sense — that  such  things  have 
certain  qualities  and  higher  powers,  that  these  qualities 
and  powers  depend  upon  the  nature  of  the  things,  that 
they  have  certain  relations  to  each  other  and  to  the 
whole,  that  each  part  has  its  proper  work  to  do  with 
regard  to  the  whole,  and  that  the  whole  has  certain 
capacities  and  relations  to  other  wholes  of  the  same 
class  and  of  other  classes.  When  the  whole  of  the 
knowledge  of  such  matters  has  been  written,  and  the 
parts  of  it  have  been  so  arranged  and  related  to  each 
other  as  to  show  most  clearly,  completely,  and  con- 
nectedly, what  is  the  meaning  and  value  of  it,  then  we 
have  a  science.  In  other  words :  science  is  organised 
knowledge,  or  knowledge  built  up  into  a  self-consistent 
and  dependent  whole — in  a  manner  similar  to  that  of 
the  watch  as  above  described. 

Men  have  come  to  consider  education  in  such  a  way 
as  this,  and  as  a  result  there  is  a  science  of  education, 
but  this  is  a  modem  product.  It  is,  like  all  the 
sciences,  necessarily  incomplete.  Much  remains  to  be 
done  in  the  way  of  correction  and  progress,  and  some- 
thing must  always  so  remain. 

Before  anything  like  a  science  of  education  was 
possible,  people  had  to  decide  exactly  what  they  would 
mean  by  the  word.  No  doubt  the  general  opinion  was 
largely  formed,  as  all  general  ideas  must  be,  by  the 
nature  of  the  practical  problem  which  had  to  be  dealt 
with.  Life  has  become  so  many  sided,  the  stores  of 
knowledge  on  all  kinds  of  subject  so  vast,  the  nature  of 
such  knowledge  so  profound,  and  the  daily  life  of  an 
ordinary  person   requires   such  power,  readiness,  and 


16  EDUCATION 

accuracy  of  well-informed  judgment,  ttat  only  a  strong 
and  capable  mind  and  body  can  fit  a  person  to  take  a 
successful  part  in  modern  thought  and  action.  There- 
fore it  is  expedient  that  the  mind  and  body  should  be 
developed  as  rapidly  and  perfectly  as  possible,  solely 
with  a  view  to  getting  the  maximum  of  capacity, 
ability,  and  power  both  in  their  more  passive  and  more 
active  aspects,  i.e.,  with  regard  to  their  ready  and  right 
response  to  whatever  afiects  them,  and  also  in  respect  to 
those  initiating,  organising,  and  interpreting  activities 
which  are  peculiar  to  themselves. 

We  may  say  that  nowadays  the  mind  of  the 
ordinary  man  has  to  do  what  only  the  mind  of  the 
scholar  and  sage  did  a  few  centuries  ago ;  just  as  the 
office-boy  of  to-day  knows  more  in  the  way  of  pure 
knowledge  than  did  the  ordinary  philosopher  of  the 
middle  ages.  In  short,  the  intellectual  life  of  this 
century  is  as  much  more  comprehensive,  rapid,  and 
productive  than  that  of  a  hundred  years  ago,  as  is  the 
present  commercial  life  more  comprehensive,  rapid,  and 
productive  than  that  of  the  past. 

In  primitive  times  it  was  possible  for  a  man  to  know 
all  that  was  known,  and  to  do  all  the  difierent  kinds  of 
actions  that  were  done ;  but  now  no  one  man  knows 
even  all  that  is  known  about  any  one  subject,  and 
certainly  cannot  do  all  the  diflferent  kinds  of  actions 
required  in  some  complex  arts. 

The  demands  upon  both  mind  and  body  are  vastly 
more  numerous  and  more  difficult  now  than  formerly, 
and  this  fact  has  brought  about  the  necessity  for  a 
systematic  preparation  of  the  mind  for  purely  mental 


NATURE    AND   SCOPE  17 

work,  as  such,  i,e,,  as  entirely  separate,  so  far  as  is 
possible,  from  that  which  causes  it  to  act.  This  is 
illustrated  in  a  case  where  one  is  justified  in  saying : 
"Your  reasoning  is  quite  right,  but  your  facts  are  all 
wrong!"  Similarly  the  body  needs  special  training 
and  discipline  to  fit  it  to  do  its  own  special  work  most 
effectively,  and  thus  be  able  most  eflSciently  to  co- 
operate with  the  mind. 

This  then  is  the  way  in  which  education  is  now 
regarded.  It  is,  on  its  practical  side,  the  systematic 
training  of  the  mind  so  as  best  to  fit  it  to  do  its  own 
proper  work,  viz.,  receiving,  responding  to,  recognising, 
and  reasoning  about,  all  that  happens  to  a  human 
being  in  the  form  of  experience,  in  the  quickest,  com- 
pletest,  easiest,  and  most  effective  manner  possible. 
And  so  also  with  the  body  and  its  proper  work.  Of 
course  the  mind  and  the  body  can  only  be  brought  to 
work  so  through  being  guided  and  controlled  in  their 
ordinary  and  necessary  workings.  So  that,  if  we  wish 
to  train  a  mind  to  the  greatest  possible  skill  and  power 
in  acquiring  knowledge,  we  must  proceed  to  give  it 
knowledge  of  the  best  kind,  and  in  the  best  way ;  but 
we  must  give  it,  primarily  at  least,  solely  with  the 
object  of  so  giving  it  that  the  work  of  the  mind  in 
acquiring  it  makes  it  (the  mind)  more  powerful  and 
independent  in  getting  further  knowledge. 

If  we  desire  to  get  the  body  to  do  its  own  work  most 
perfectly,  we  must  guide  and  control  its  actions — 
through  giving  the  appropriate  knowledge — in  such  a 
way  that  it  gets  the  power  always  to  act  to  its  own 
greatest  advantage,  and  to  be  of  the  greatest  possible 


18  EDUCATION 

use  to  the  mind  in  supplying  it  fully  and  freely  with 
sensations.  That  is,  there  must  be  a  specific  and 
systematic  method,  based  upon  sound  scientific  know- 
ledge, for  furthering  the  development  of  mind  and 
body.  Hence,  what  the  science  of  education  has  to  do  is 
to  organise  all  the  knowledge  we  have,  and  can  discover,  as 
to  the  nature  and  laws  of  the  difierent  kinds  of  things 
which  are  involved  in  the  processes  suggested. 

That  the  above  fairly  represents  ordinary  well- 
informed  opinion  on  the  subject  will  be  clear  if  we 
consider  what  is,  and  what  is  not,  accepted  as  true 
education.  Most  persons  who  have  thought  about  the 
subject  would  probably  agree  in  denying  that  the  name 
education  should  be  applied  to :  (i)  the  knowledge- 
giving  and  mind-developing  efiects,  whether  temporary 
or  permanent,  of  the  casual  or  invariable  and  inevitable 
influences  which  come  from  personal  example,  oflScial 
and  other  regulations,  physical  and  social  surroundings, 
&c.,  for  these  lack  the  element  of  organised  purpose  and 
system,  and  if  the  name  be  applied  to  such  then  every- 
thing is  education ;  or  to  (2)  mere  instruction,  as  such, 
i.e.,  pure  information  giving  or  telling,  in  which  there  is 
no  attention  given  to  what  will  be  the  developing  effect  it 
has  upon  the  mind,  or  even  whether  it  has  any  at  all — 
or  imparts  any  real  knowledge — so  that  in  its  worst 
form  we  call  this  kind  of  work  cram  ;  or  to  (3)  mere 
manual,  physical,  technical — e.g.,  carpentry,  military 
drill,  engineering — training,  as  such,  i.e.,  mere  instruc- 
tion and  practice  in  doing  certain  acts  which  constitute 
the  technical  system  of  a  craft,  a  profession,  or  an  art, 
for  if  such  were  education,  then  the  learning  to  make 


NATURE  AND   SCOPE  19 

a  boot  would  be  edacation,  and  the  shoemaker  who 
shows  an  apprentice  how  to  do  his  work  an  educator. 

On  the  other  hand,  most  people  would  agree  that  the 
highest  and  truest  idea  of  education  is  expressed  by 
the  following:  **to  call  into  exercise  and  perfect  the 
powers  of  the  mind  "  (Dr.  J.  Ward) ;  **  the  harmonious 
and  equable  evolution  of  the  human  powers,  by  a 
method  based  on  the  nature  of  mind  "  (Stein) ;  and 
"the  development  of  the  physical,  intellectual,  and 
moral  faculties  of  man  "  (Compayr6).  It  will  be  seen 
that  the  central  idea  in  the  above  is  that  the  securing 
of  mental  and  physical  development  is  the  special  object 
of  education.  Now  development  includes  many  things, 
viz.,  growth  or  mere  increase  in  substance,  size,  or 
extent :  increase  of  capacity,  or  power  to  contain  and 
hold:  increase  of  power,  so  that  work  is  more  easily 
done,  more  is  done,  and  heavier  tasks  are  performed : 
and  increase  of  ability,  or  power  to  do  more  complex, 
more  profound,  and  more  advanced  work. 

As  we  have  before  said,  such  a  progress  can  only  be 
secured  by  guiding,  controlling,  and  forming  the  mind 
and  body  through  their  ordinary  workings,  i.e.,  through 
the  knowledge-receiving  activities  of  the  mind,  and  the 
body-forming  activities  of  the  body.  The  mind  acquires 
the  power  to  act  well  (in  an  explicit  and  independent 
sense)  by  acting  well  (in  an  implicit  and  dependent 
sense)  under  disciplinary  conditions;  and  the  body 
comes  to  acquire  greater  and  more  perfect  forms  of 
activity  through  habits  of  right  action  prompted  and 
guided  by  right  knowledge. 

To  put  the  matter  in  another  way,  we  can  say  that 


20  EDUCATION 

a  being  is  properly  and  completely  developed  when  all 
its  parts  and  organs  are  full  and  perfect  in  all  their 
details,  so  that  the  individual  can  perform  all  the 
actions  proper  and  possible  to  it  with  ease,  accuracy, 
and  power.  With  regard  to  the  mind  this  will  mean 
a  fully  developed  power  to  acquire  and  to  use  know- 
ledge. 

Definition  of  Edncation. — We  may  sum  up  what  we 
have  said  by  giving  as  a  definition  of  the  science  :  Educa- 
tion is  the  science  of  human  development,  in  so  far  as 
that  development  is  purposely  determined  by  the 
systematic  imparting  of  knowledge.  This  represents 
the  purely  scientific  view  of  education,  and  we  will 
proceed  to  discuss  it  in  some  detail. 

It  may  seem  that  this  definition  is  much  wider  than 
the  previous  remarks  warrant,  since  in  the  former  we 
speak  of  human  development,  but  in  the  latter  of 
mental  and  physical  development.  But,  as  we  shall 
see  later  on,  everything  of  importance  which  happens 
in  the  mind  influences  the  whole  man,  and  whatever  of 
consequence  takes  place  in  any  part  of  the  man  as  a 
whole  influences  the  mind.  Thus  mental  and  physical 
development  includes  intellectual,  moral,  aesthetic,  and 
to  a  large  extent,  manual,  and  other  forms  of  special 
sense  development. 

Therefore  from  this  point  of  view  of  development, 
education  is  practically  unlimited.  But  from  another 
point  of  view  it  is  very  strictly  and  definitely  limited, 
and  must  be  if  we  are  to  have  anything  of  the  nature 
of  a  special  science.  Only  that  part  of  mental  develop- 
ment which  is  brought  about  by  systematically  dis- 


NATURE   AND   SCOPE  2i 

ciplining  the  workings  of  the  mind  and  body  is  re- 
garded as  the  result  of  education  proper.  There  must 
be  a  definite  aim  and  effort  to  secure  development  by 
subjecting  the  mental  and  physical  powers  to  the  best 
influences,  conditions,  and  methods.  In  other  words, 
the  first  and  only  thought,  so  far  as  pure  education  is 
concerned,  is:  by  what  kind  of  knowledge,  and  by 
what  methods  of  imparting  it,  is  the  development,  as 
such — without  regard  (for  the  time  being)  to  other 
results — of  the  mind  best  secured. 

The  consideration  of  what  kind  of  knowledge  is  most 
useful,  is  both  a  right  and  a  necessary  one,  and  should 
always  be  kept  in  mind  ;  but  it  has  in  itself  nothing  to 
do  with  true  education — as  we  have  defined  the  term — 
and  must  always  be  subordinate  to  it. 

According  to  the  above,  instruction  must  be  clearly 
marked  off  from  education.  No  system  of  instruction 
is  a  means  of  education,  in  the  above  sense,  unless  it  is 
directly,  definitely,  and  ifeolely — at  least  in  so  far  as  all 
other  aims  are  subordinate — used  to  further  mental 
development.  All  kinds  of  instruction  may  be,  but 
none  need  be,  agents  of  true  education.  Of  course  all 
true  instruction  must,  to  a  greater  or  lesser  degree, 
further  development,  but  it  is  not  therefore  an  agent  in 
scientific  education,  in  our  sense  of  the  term,  any  more 
than  an  action  is  a  moral  action  because  it  cannot  but 
have  some  of  the  same  elements  and  effects  as  a  moral 
action.  An  action  is  moral  only  when  it  is  a  part  of, 
and  related  to,  the  whole  of  a  moral  code  which  is  being 
purposely  conformed  with.  Thus  a  man,  in  the  pursuit 
of  unworthy  ends,  may  find  it  expedient  to  treat  certain 


22  EDUCATION 

persons  with  leniency  and  generosity,  but  such  acts  are 
not  morally  worthy,  because  they  are  not  prompted  by 
moral  considerations,  or  designed  to  bring  about  moral 
ends,  in  accord  with  an  accepted  moral  code.  So 
education  proper  includes  only  such  instruction  as  is 
based  upon  and  designed  to  quicken  and  extend  the 
powers  of  mind,  in  harmony  with  the  proper  order  of 
mental  evolution. 

This  endeavour  to  obtain  the  greatest,  most  complete, 
and  most  perfect  development,  as  such,  of  the  mind  and 
body  is  most  likely  to  be  effective  if  made  during  the 
period  of  the  general  growth  and  development  of  the 
whole  being,  viz.,  up  to  about  the  twenty-fifth  year. 
During  this  period  all  the  powers  of  mind  and  body  are 
peculiarly  plastic  and  susceptible  to  all  kinds  of  in- 
fluences. The  practical  necessities  of  life,  however, 
make  it  impossible  that  the  whole  of  this  time  should 
be  given  up  to  education  proper,  and  generally,  it 
ceases  at  about  the  sixteenth  year,  and  then  a  definite 
training  for  practical  work  is  begun.  Of  course,  at 
anytime  during  life  we  may  submit  ourselves  to  mental 
training  which  is  wholly  designed  to  produce  a  facility 
in,  and  ability  for,  some  special  kind  of  mental  or 
physical  activity,  i.e.,  receive  education. 

Throughout  our  future  discussions  we  shall,  unless 
something  to  the  contrary  is  definitely  indicated,  regard 
ourselves  as  dealing  with  the  period  of  youth  which  is 
ordinarily  given  up  to  education,  viz.,  from  about  the  fifth 
to  the  eighteenth  year.  This  is  an  important  limitation, 
because  the  general  condition  and  powers  of  the  in- 
dividual differ  from  those  of    a  later  period  of  life. 


NATURE   AND   SCOPE  23 

although  they  also  in  many  ways  resemble  them. 
There  is  a  very  great  difference  as  to  the  relative 
importance  and  predominance  of  certain  characteristics 
at  certain  periods.  A  youth  is  more  inquisitive  and 
less  restrained,  more  sensuous  and  less  reflective,  more 
energetic  and  less  cautious,  than  a  man ;  but  both  have 
the  same  kinds  of  qualities,  though  they  are  differently 
balanced  and  developed.  This  makes  no  difference  of 
quality,  but  considerable  differences  of  proportion,  in 
educational  principles  when  applied  to  the  one  or  the 
other. 

In  the  adult  certain  powers  and  qualities  are  de- 
veloped which  are  not  possible  to  the  youth,  and  powers 
and  qualities  which  are  common  to  both  are,  in  the 
adult,  developed  into  new  and  more  complex  forms. 
The  adult  has  duties  and  responsibilities  with  regard  to 
the  life  of  the  community  which  the  youth  has  not,  and 
these  bring  new  and  powerful  influences  into  action 
upon  him.  The  duties  and  responsibilities  of  the 
parent,  the  citizen,  the  employer,  the  ofllcial,  &c.,  have 
to  be  taken  into  account. 

So  far,  however,  as  the  previous  education  has  been 
real  and  effective,  it  is  instruction  rather  than  education 
which  will  be  required  for  the  adult.  If  right  habits  of 
thought  have  been  formed  the  mind  will  be  able  so  to 
deal  with  the  new  conditions  as  to  secure  further  mental 
progress  and  development  on  the  old  lines.  Indeed  the 
individual  should  be  capable  of  being  his  own  educator 
in  an  explicit,  thorough,  and  scientific  sense.  This 
will  appear  more  fully  as  we  go  on. 

With  respect  to  the  time  taken  up   by  the   stages 


24  EDUCATION 

through  which  the  idea  of  education  has  passed  before 
it  reaches  such  a  state  of  what  we  know  as  pure  science, 
we  may  say  that  such  stages  have  been  passed  through 
by  many  different  peoples  at  different  periods  in  the 
world's  history.  But,  speaking  in  general  terms,  there 
have  been  deeper,  broader,  and  more  intellectual 
elements  in  each  movement  through*  the  different 
grades  as  civilisation  has  advanced,  so  that  the  highest 
form  of  the  idea  of  what  true  education  really  is,  is 
to-day  more  comprehensive  and  complete  than  at  any 
other  time.  History  repeats  itself,  but  with  a  difference 
which  is  usually  more  or  less  of  an  improvement. 
Though  the  Greeks  had  a  very  high  and  beautiful  ideal 
in  education,  they  had  not  anything  like  the  scientific 
knowledge  to  help  them  which  we  have.  We  have  all 
the  best  of  their  knowledge  and  thought  to  guide  and 
assist  us,  so  that  whilst  we  need  never  fall  short  of 
their  ideals — for  we  can  adopt  them — we  can  extend 
them  in  many  ways. 

It  is  interesting  to  notice  that  the  forms  which  we 
have  called  domestic  and  professional  education  still 
remain,  though  they  have  very  different  positions  in 
the  life  of  the  individual.  Domestic  education  is  now 
almost  wholly  social  training,  whilst  professional 
education  is  simply  the  technical  training  which  is 
subsequent  to  education  proper,  and  preparatory  to  the 
practical  life  of  the  adult.  Similarly  what  has  been 
called  liberal  education  should  now  be  regarded  as  the 
general  instruction  in  knowledge  for  which  education 
proper  is  a  preparation,  and  which  should  be  obtained  at 
university  and  similar  institutions,  or  by  private  study. 


NATURE    AND    SCOPE  25 

The  study  of  the  history  of  education — ^a  most 
delightful  and  helpful  branch  of  our  subject — shows 
us  that  the  old  ideas  and  methods  have  not  wholly 
disappeared,  but  have  been  extended  and  improved, 
and  put  into  more  effective  relation  with  each  other, 
and  with  the  practical  problems  of  life. 

Having  set  forth  in  some  detail  what  are  the  origin 
and  scope  of  education,  we  can  now  tbe  better  discuss 
the  things  which  it  has  to  do  with.  For,  after  all,  it  is 
our  knowledge  of  the  nature  and  laws  of  the  things,  or 
phenomena  (as  scientists  say),  concerned,  which  makes 
the  science  of  education. 

Now  it  is  the  development  of  a  human  being,  as 
purposely  influenced  by  the  imparting  of  knowledge, 
with  which  we  have  to  do.  Hence  we  must  know  the 
nature  and  laws  of  the  human  being,  and  the  nature 
and  principles  of  knowledge.  As  we  shall  see  later  on, 
to  know  the  human  being  fully,  is  to  know  the  nature 
and  laws  of  knowledge,  for  the  characteristic  of  the 
human  being  is  his  rationality  or  power  of  knowing. 
But  we  must  also  clearly  understand  what  knowledge 
is — as  something  involving  conditions  and  powers  ex- 
ternal to  the  individual — how  it  can  be  best  imparted, 
and  how  it  acts  upon  the  mind.  Above  all  we  must 
know  what  are  the  stages  of  mental,  and  physical, 
development,  in  what  they  consist,  and  at  what  periods 
in  the  life  of  the  individual  they  should  usually  occur. 

It  is  not  proposed  to  go  into  all  these  points  in  this 
book,  but  to  consider  the  more  purely  mental  side  of 
the  problem.  To  do  this  we  must  be  well  acquainted 
with  the  nature  and  laws  of  mind,  and  ,be  able  to  see 


26  EDUCATION 

the  relation  between  these  and  the  special  phenomena 
with  which  we  are  dealing,  viz.,  the  pheaoraena  connected 
with  mental  development — to  which  we  confine  our- 
selves for  the  present — as  brought  about  by  a  purposed 
and  systematic  disciplining  of  the  powers  of  mind  by 
special  methods  of  imparting  knowledge. 

The  knowledge  of  mind>  as  such,  i.e.,  as  different  and 
separate — so  far  as  we  are  able  to  regard  it  as  abstractly 
separate — from  all  other  things,  is  in  itself  a  science,  viz., 
psychology.  Therefore  it  is  only  pyschological  prin- 
ciples in  new  relations  which  We  shall  now  proceed  to 
consider.  So  that  education  is  what  is  often  called  a 
derived  science.  But  all  sciences  are  more  less  derived 
since  they  all  depend  upon  one  another,  and,  to  a  large 
extent,  overlap  and  fade  into  each  other.  When, 
however,  we  have  a  class  of  things  which  have  special 
characteristics  and  relations,  there  is  always  the  oppor- 
tunity for  a  special  science,  even  though  most  or  all  of 
the  truths  which  constitute  it  are  already  known  as 
parts  of  other  sciences.  A  new  organism  of  knowledge 
is  a  new  science. 

We  may  illustrate  this  by  such  instances  as  medicine, 
which  is  based  upon  the  sciences  of  physiology,  anatomy, 
biology,  chemistry,  physics,  &c.;  agriculture,  which  is 
derived  from  chemistry,  botany,  geology,  natural  history, 
&c.;  and  hygiene,  which  involves  physiology,  chemistry, 
physics,  medicine,  &c.  In  each  of  these  sciences  there 
is  a  special  class  of  facts:  in  medicine  all  the  phe- 
nomena connected  with  the  nature,  course,  and  cure 
of  diseases ;  in  agriculture  those  involved  in  obtaining 
produce  from  the  soil ;    and  in  hygiene  those  which 


\ 


NATURE   AND   SCOPE  27 

concern  the  perfecting  and  maintaining  of  health,  and 
the  pievention  of  disease.  Also  in  each  there  is  a 
special  organisation  of  our  knowledge  about  such  facts. 
Such  is  the  case  with  education,  and  with  practically 
all  sciences  of  modern  origin. 

Sciences  which  are,  in  the  more  direct  and  special 
sense,  derivative  must  necessarily  follow  the  method 
of  those  from  which  they  are  mainly  composed. 
Education  is  based  upon  what  are  called  the  moral 
sciences,  viz:,  psychology,  logic,  and  ethics,  so  far  as 
the  purely  intellectual  side  of  man  is  concerned,  and 
upon  physiology,  hygiene,  &c.,  with  regard  to  the 
physical  nature  of  man.  It  will  therefore  follow  the 
method  of  these  sciences,  which  is  the  inductive  method. 

We  may  illustrate  this  method  by  the  following 
example.  In  the  earliest  days  of  education  all  teaching 
would  be  directly  connected  with  the  objects  about 
which  it  was  desirable  for  the  pupil  to  know  certain 
things.  Although  the  amount  learnt  in  this  way  was 
small  in  comparison  with  what  is  done  at  the  present 
time,  yet  it  was  considerable  when  we  remember  the 
difference  of  general  mental  development  between  then 
and  now.  Also  it  would  appear  that  sach  a  method 
of  teaching  was  very  effective  and  easy,  for  ordinary 
individuals  seem  to  have  acquired  very  great  skill  and 
considerable  ability  in  the  common  arts  of  the  day,  as 
is  shown  by  their  implements  of  war  and  peace.  This 
appears  to  be  true  up  to  the  time  that  written 
language  was  invented  and  had  become,  through  the 
aid  of  printing,  a  matter  of  common  knowledge. 
When  some  of  the  finest  thoughts  and  knowledge  of 


28  EDUCATION 

the  greatest  thinkers  of  the  ancient  world  had  been 
expressed  in  printed  books,  and  there  had  arisen  a 
very  keen  interest  in  them,  and  a  desire  to  know 
them,  as  being  the  best  that  the  world  of  thought 
had  to  give :  then  it  was  considered  that  to  know  of 
these  through  the  books  in  which  they  were  expressed, 
was  to  know  all  that  was  most  valuable  in  knowledge. 

Education  then,  and  therefore,  resolved  itself  into  a 
system  of  acquiring  skill  in  all  the  details  of  the  art 
of  written  language,  so  that  the  student  should  be 
able  to  get  every  possible  point  of  meaning  from  the 
verbal  forms.  This  kind  of  learning  was  made  the 
more  necessary,  and  difficult,  in  such  countries  as 
England,  because  it  happened  that  all  the  matter 
which  was  thought  to  be  of  value  was  in  the  Greek 
and  Latin  languages.  So  great  was  the  conviction  of 
this  necessity,  that  for  many  centuries  practically  no 
attention  was  given  to  the  systematic  teaching  of  the 
mother-tongue.  Only  the  teaching  of  the  classical 
languages  was  really  attended  to.  After  a  time,  how- 
ever, careful  observers  and  thinkers  began  to  recognise 
that  the  results  of  such  teaching  were  very  far  from 
satisfactory  for  practical  purposes,  and,  indeed,  had 
very  little  permanent  value  to  the  average  person. 
Montaigne  says  of  the  scholars  of  his  time :  "  For  the 
most  part  they  neither  understand  others  nor  them- 
selves ....  their  memories  are  full  enough,  it  is  true, 
but  the  judgment  totally  devoid  and  empty."  They 
also  noticed  that  there  was  an  amount  of  time  and 
energy  devoted  to  the  task  out  of  all  proportion  to  the 
meagre   results   obtained,   owing   to   the   difficulty   of 


NATUKE   AND   SCOPE  29 

getting  the  learners  to  take  a  real  interest  in  their 
work,  and  to  the  fact  that  few  acquired  sufficient 
knowledge  to  be  able  to  read  the  classical  languages 
with  ease  and  pleasure.  Moreover,  there  was  very 
little  occasion  for  using  any  language  except  the 
mother-tongue  in  the  ordinary  affairs  of  life.  And  not 
only  was  the  matter  thus  learnt  out  of  relation  to  the 
common  life,  but  so  far  as  it  contained  information 
about  men  and  things,  it  related  to  other  times, 
foreign  people,  and  unknown  habits  and  customs,  and 
what  it  had  to  tell  about  familiar  objects  and  acts  was 
not  always  the  truest  or  best  that  was  then  known 
about  them.  So  that  those  who  obtained  their  first 
knowledge  of  things  through  a  more  or  less  imperfect 
translation  and  understanding  of  the  more  or  less 
ambiguous  and  necessarily  imcomplete  verbal  record 
of  more  or  less  imperfect  knowledge,  were  both  very 
ill-informed  and,  often,  very  much  misinformed. 

These  points  were  carefully  observed  and  compared 
with  the  results  which  followed  the  imparting  of  know- 
ledge through  dealing  directly  with,  and  appealing  to 
common  experiences  of,  real  objects.  Lessons  were 
conducted  on  the  principle  of  teaching  through  objects 
themselves,  and  the  results  were  found  to  be  highly 
satisfactory,  and  far  more  sound  and  lasting  than  those 
obtained  by  teaching  through  written  descriptions 
only.  More  and  more  evidence  in  favour  of  this 
method  was  given  by  further  experience. 

Further  observation,  comparison,  and  classification 
of  the  detai]s  connected  with  the  two  methods  led  to 
the  conclusion  that  the  only  real  difference  between 


30  EDUCATION 

them  was  as  to  whether  the  knowledge  was  gained 
directly  through  persona,!  experience  and  thought,  or 
indirectly  through  the  interpretation  of  the  experi- 
ences and  thought  of  others — with  little,  if  any,  help 
from  personal  experience — as  recorded  in  written 
language ;  for  in  many  cases  the  information,  the 
learners,  the  teachers,  and  the  general  conditions 
were  for  all  practical  purposes  exactly  similar.  Hence 
this  was  taken  to  be  the  reason  for  the  difference  of 
the  results,  and  it  was  laid  down  as  a  practical  rule : 
that  knowledge  of  the  thing  itself  through  actual 
experiences  should  come  before  attempting  to  get 
knowledge  of  it  through  written  words. 

Later  on,  when  the  nature  of  mind  and  its  depend- 
ence upon  the  senses  for  the  material  upon  which  it 
acts,  were  scientifically  understood,  it  was  seen  that  the 
above  practical  rule  expressed  a  principle  of  mental 
development,  viz.,  that  the  mind  proceeds  from  know- 
ledge which  comes  through  sense  given  material,  to 
judgments  about  its  fuller  meaning,  and  then  invents 
signs,  i,e.,  a  language,  to  express  and  record  such 
knowledge.  This  gives  the  scientific  basis  for  the 
principle :  development  in  knowledge  is  from  the 
concrete  to  the  abstract  and  symbolic.  Prom  this 
great  principle  many  conclusions  as  to  details  in 
methods  of  teaching  have  been  drawn,  e,g,,  as  to  the 
place  of  kindergarten  in  the  education  of  very  young 
children,  the  need  of  beginning  the  study  of  such 
subjects  as  arithmetic  through  concretes,  and  the 
general  value  and  necessity  of  sense-training  (manual . 
instruction,  &c.)  in  various  forms.     And  all  such  con- 


NATUKE   AND   SCOrE  31 

elusions  have  been  found  to  be  sound  and  beneficial, 
by  the  excellent  results  produced  by  putting  them 
into  practice.  In  this  way  still  more  evidence  in 
support  of  the  original  principle  has  been  supplied. 

The  above  shows  the  progress  which  comes  through 
the  eflforts  of  succeeding  generations  with  regard  to  the 
practical  consideration  of  the  same  subject,  and  also  the 
very  great  help  which  the  student  of  a  subject  can 
obtain  from  the  study  of  the  history  of  the  development 
of  the  present  knowledge  of  it.  Where  the  products 
are  sound,  the  processes  are  likely  to  be  scientific ; 
and,  where  these  are  explicit  the  science  itself  stands 
revealed  in  more  or  less  fulness,  and  the  elements  of 
scientific  method  are  practically  complete. 

As  M.  Compayr6  remarks  :  '*  It  is  profitable  to  study 
even  the  chimeras  and  the  educational  errors  of  our 
predecessors.  In  fact,  these  are  so  many  marked  ex- 
periments which  contribute  to  the  progress  of  our 
methods  by  warning  us  of  the  rocks  which  we  should 
shun.  In  truth,  for  him  who  has  an  exact  knowledge 
of  the  educators  of  past  centuries,  the  work  of  construct- 
ing a  system  of  education  is  more  than  half  done." 
With  regard  to  this,  it  may  be  said  that  unless  beginners 
are  prepared  for  the  reading  of  the  history  of  a  science 
by  at  least  an  intelligible  grasp  of  the  outlines  of  what 
is  accepted  as  the  orthodox  view,  they  are  likely  to  be 
very  much  confused  by  the  conflict  of  opinions  and 
practices  which  a  historical  sketch  inevitably  reveals. 

Professor  Foster  Watson  says :  '*  The  history  of  edu- 
cation is  a  necessary  part  of  a  teacher's  training,  so  that 
he  can  enter  intelligibly  into  the  continuity  of  national 


32  EDUCATION 

educational  progress.  And,  secondly,  that,  as  far  as 
possible,  disinterestedly,  he  may  have  material  for  judg- 
ment for  comparing  and  judging  the  different  present- 
day  ends  and  co-ordinating  them.  Thirdly,  that,  enter- 
ing into  bis  work  with  human  ends,  he  may  strengthen 
his  manhood  by  imbibing  something  of  the  nobility  of 
aim  and  endeavour  which  has  characterised  the  efforts 
of  educators  in  all  ages  and  all  climes."  And  Dr. 
Sully  maintains  that  to  obtain  a  sound  method  it  is 
necessary  to  reflect  upon  the  observed  facts  which  the 
history  of  educational  theory  and  practice  involve. 

Function  of  Education.— To  make  clearer,  if  possible, 
our  ideas  of  what  true  education  really  is,  we  may  look  at 
it,  for  a  few  moments,  from  the  practical  point  of  view. 
The  progress  of  the  human  race  depends  very  much 
upon  each  succeeding  generation  being  able,  as  far  as 
possible,  to  begin  where  the  immediately  preceding  one 
leaves  off.  Now  this  could  never  happen  if  every 
individual  can  get  all  the  experience  and  knowledge  of 
the  present  generation  only  by  going  through  every 
detail  of  every  part  of  it  for  himself. 

It  is  true  that  he  must  so  obtain  some  one  or  more 
examples  of  each  definitely  distinct  class  of  experience 
and  knowledge,  or  he  can  never  realise  the  meaning  of 
such.  The  development  and  history  of  the  individual 
is  in  this  respect,  and  to  this  extent,  the  same  as  that 
of  the  race,  and  that  of  the  race  as  that  of  the  indi- 
vidual. To  give  a  simple  illustration  of  the  above :  the 
uninformed  dwellers  in  tropical  regions  cannot  under- 
stand that  it  is  sometimes  possible  for  hundreds  of 
persons  to  travel  upon  the  surface  of  a  lake   in  the 


NATURE  AND   SCOPfi  33 

Same  way  that  they  do  upon  the  solid  ground.  If 
report  be  true,  some  travellers  have  lost  their  heads 
through  trying  to  convince  uncivilised  rulers  of  tropical 
countries  of  such  a,  to  us,  simple  truth.  But  when  we 
have  experience  and  knowledge  of  a  frozen  lake,  it  is 
not  very  diflBcult  for  us  to  understand  the  accounts  of 
life  in  arctic  regions,  if  they  are  put  before  us  in  a  clear 
and  connected  form,  and  so  as  to  show  the  relation  of 
the  facts  of  arctic  life  to  those  within  our  own  lives. 

In  this  way  one  who  has  never  been  to  a  certain 
country  can  get  to  know,  from  the  accounts  given  by 
many  travellers,  more  about  it  than  even  a  person  who 
has  spent  many  years  there.  Similarly,  an  individual 
may,  in  a  few  years,  learn  what  has  taken  all  the  wisest 
men  in  all  ages  all  their  lives  to  discover  about  certain 
things.  Compare,  for  example,  how  a  young  student 
of  chemistry  can  in  a  short  time  become  possessed  of 
the  latest  knowledge  of  the  nature  of  the  atmosphere, 
such  knowledge  being  the  outcome  of  the  work  of  the 
ablest  thinkers  since  the  very  beginnings  of  the  science. 
We  inherit,  possess,  enjoy,  and  add  to  the  knowledge 
of  our  forefathers,  much  in  the  same  way  as  we  add  to 
their  material  wealth. 

Now,  in  educating  an  individual,  the  aim  is  so  to 
develop  his  mental  powers  that  he  may,  to  as  great  an 
extent  as  is  possible,  be  in  intelligent  sympathy  with 
some  of  the  highest  forms  of  intellectual  knowledge  of 
the  day.  To  whatever  degree  this  can  be  accomplished, 
in  so  far  the  individual  may  be  said  to  begin  where  the 
race  has  left  ofiP,  and,  if  he  has  power  and  perseverance, 
he  may  advance  the  world  of  knowledge  beyond  the 

c 


34  EDUCATION 

stage  at  which  he  found  it.  We  might  say  that  in  this 
way  the  mental  power  of  the  individual  is,  through 
education,  multiplied  by  the  product  of  that  of  the  race. 

Every  one  must  know  from  personal  experience  how 
much  the  mental  character  is  broadened  and  deepened 
through  communication  with  other  and  greater  minds, 
and  by  becoming  acquainted  with  the  habits  of  thought 
and  modes  of  life  of  many  men  in  many  countries.  So 
striking  is  the  effect  of  such  intercourse  in  developing  a 
person's  individuality  that  we  often  say  "  it  has  made 
a  new  man  of  him."  To  a  greater  or  less  degree  this 
kind  of  developing  influence  can  be  used  in  educating. 
We  can  bring  the  mind  into  intelligent  contact  with 
some  of  the  best  thoughts  of  the  greatest  minds  through 
the  study  of  literature,  or,  in  a  more  elementary  way, 
by  literary  selections  for  ordinary  school  reading  lessons. 
In  the  same  way  it  is  possible  to  become  acquainted 
with  the  habits  and  customs  of  other  men  and  other 
countries  through  descriptive  geography.  The  whole 
world  of  men  and  things  can,  by  sample,  be  brought  to 
the  knowledge  of  the  youthful  learner. 

This  last  is  a  great  and  significant  truth,  of  the 
highest  possible  value  in  education.  Its  possibility 
makes  the  work  of  educating  the  young  of  the  greatest 
moment  to  the  individual  and  the  nation.  The  present 
generation  can  thus  fit  the  coming  generation  to  enter 
into,  and  realise,  its  highest  hopes  and  desires. 

The  great  world  of  fact  and  knowledge,  which  may  be 
said  really  to  belong  only  to  the  human  race  as  a  whole, 
can,  in  a  sense,  be  put  into  the  very  little  world  of  the 
youthful  mental  life.     In  seeking  to  develop  the  mind 


NATURE   AND   SCOPE  35 

through  geographical  teaching,  the  surface  and  scenery 
of  the  whole  world,  all  the  most  remarkable  customs  and 
habits  of  all  nations,  and  innumerable  facts  and  phe- 
nomena of  all  kinds,  are  passed  in  review  before  the 
learner.  The  physical  laboratory  reveals  to  him,  as  in 
miniature,  some  of  the  great  and  mighty  forces  of 
nature  which  sustain  and  rule  our  universe.  The 
biological  laboratory  puts  before  him  examples  of  the 
laws  and  conditions  of  life  and  vital  activity.  .  History 
unrolls  the  life  and  actions  of  the  human  race  before  his 
eyes.  And  so  by  things  and  words,  by  samples,  types, 
and  series,  by  observation  and  reflection,  this  great 
universe  of  ours  can  be  squeezed  within  the  four  walls 
of  a  small  class-room.  The  importance  of  this  truth 
for  the  educator  can  hardly  be  over-estimated.  It  is 
the  veiy  corner-stone  of  systematic  development. 

Again,  we  all  know  from  painful  experience  that  if 
we  are  left  to  ourselves  we  discover  a  very  little  truth, 
after  making  very  many,  and  often  serious,  errors. 
Much  loss  of  valuable  time  occurs  during  the  process, 
and  still  more  in  undoing  the  bad  effects  of  the  wrong 
views  of  things  which  have  been  entertained,  and  of 
the  material  losses  which  may  have  resulted.  It  is  very 
diflicult,  and  often  well-nigh  impossible,  to  correct  an 
error  of  judgment  which  is  the  result  of  the  individual's 
own,  but  mistaken,  mental  efforts,  and  which  he  be- 
lieves he  has  found  to  be  confirmed  by  experience  (mis- 
interpreted). Compare,  for  example,  the  superstitious 
beliefs  in  signs  and  omens,  which  arise  from  mistaking 
coincidence  for  cause,  and  which  still  remain  even 
amongst  the  educated,  in  the  form  of  palmistry,  &c. 


36  EDUCATION 

Errors  must  always  more  or  less  retard  true  develop- 
ment, for  they  generally  necessitate  going  over  the 
same  ground  again.  Hence  the  educator  teaches  as 
much  truth  through  truth  as  he  can,  carefully  avoiding 
errors,  so  as  to  develop  a  proper  mental  method  which 
shall,  as  far  as  possible,  prevent  unnecessary  mistakes. 

Nature  if  left  to  itself — i.e.,  without  the  guiding  and 
controlling  power  of  reason — produces  good  and  bad  in 
wild  profusion,  and  destroys  more  than  it  preserves.  It 
has  been  well  said  that  nature  cares  nothing  for  the 
individual,  but  everything  for  the  race.  Only  the 
strongest,  which  are  by  no  means  necessarily  the  best, 
survive.  It  needs  the  care  and  cultivation  which  reason 
alone  can  secure  to  bring  about  the  production  of  much 
of  the  best  things.  Hence  the  garden  as  against  the 
wilderness,  the  orchard  apple  as  against  the  wild  crab- 
apple,  the  civilised  man  as  against  the  savage  (when 
reason  looks  after  itself),  &c.  Nature,  apart  from  man, 
orders  the  individual  to  his  surroundings :  man  orders 
the  surroundings  to  the  individual,  as  much  as  possible. 
So  arises  the  need  of  the  educator  as  an  agent  in  the 
development  of  the  human  being. 

Man  cannot  help  being  informed  and  developed  by 
his  experiences,  but  he  can  help  his  experiences  to  edu- 
cate him  more  easily,  quickly,  and  completely  than  they 
would  otherwise  do  it.  This  is  the  function  of  the  edu- 
cator, and,  therefore,  we  should  find  in  the  science  of 
education  an  account  of  the  nature  and  laws  of  all  the 
different  kinds  of  phenomena  which  are  dealt  with  by 
the  educator. 

Above  all,  there  will,  very  properly,  be  an  earnest 


NATURE   AND   SCOPE  37 

endeavour  on  the  part  of  the  educator  to  bring  the 
learner  into  practical  relation  with  his  surroundings. 
This  is  as  necessary  from  the  point  of  view  of  advan- 
tageous living,  as  it  is  inevitable  from  the  point  of  view 
of  living  at  all.  The  individual  must  so  act  as  to  get 
good,  and  not  harm,  from  his  surroundings,  and  it  is, 
of  course,  well  that  he  should  so  act  as  to  get  the 
greatest  good  from  them.  But  this  gives  rise  to  the 
choice  between  the  greatest  immediate  good,  and  the 
greatest  total  good  in  the  long  run — that  which  can  be 
obtained  during  an  average  lifetime.  This  considera- 
tion is  the  practical  basis  of  the  claim  that  the  earliest 
years  of  life  should  be  given  up  to  pure  education — i.«., 
to  preparatory  development — rather  than  to  the  acquir- 
ing of  certain  j)articular  kinds  of  power.  It  is  urged 
that  to  give  proper  attention  to  the  former  makes  the 
latter  easier  to  secure,  and  more  effective  when  obtained. 
Indeed,  to  get  the  former  most  completely  we  must  em- 
ploy just  the  same  general  material  and  method  as  for 
the  latter,  leaving  out  only  particular  details  of  material 
and  method.  If  this  reasoning  be  sound,  then  the 
educator  ought  not  to  try  and  teach  a  boy  to  be  a  car- 
penter, shoemaker,  accountant,  journalist,  &c.,  but  to 
give  him  such  a  general  physical  and  intellectual  edu- 
cation as  will  best  develop  his  powers  for  taking  up 
any  of  these  occupations  with  the  greatest  possible 
likelihood  of  success. 

Similarly  with  regard  to  conduct.  However  important 
and  desirable  it  may  be  to  form  "  a  Christian  character," 
**  a  perfection-seeking  character,"  or  **  a  good  citizen,' 
these  are  matters  for  the  theologian,  the  teacher  of 


38  EDUCATION 

ethics,  and  the  sociologist  to  deal  with,  and  not  for  the 
educator,  as  such.  The  educator,  as  such,  has  no  more 
to  do  with  including  such  things  in  his  science,  than 
the  astronomer,  the  geologist,  and  the  zoologist,  have  to 
do  with  incorporating  biblical  teaching  with  their  sub- 
jects. One  can  be  taught  to  be  honest,  kind,  just,  &c., 
without  being  brought  up  as  a  Christian,  Buddhist,  or 
Mahommedan,  &c.  It  is  not  a  question  of  excluding 
these  matters,  but  of  excluding  particular  views  with 
regard  to  them.  Religion  cannot  be  excluded  from 
teaching,  but  religions  can :  whether  they  should,  is  a 
matter  to  be  decided  by  the  public  and  private  conscience. 
What  particular  end  we  shall  set  before  the  individual, 
or  he  shall  propose  to  himself,  when  well-developed 
powers  have  been  considered  and  secured,  is  a  different 
matter  from  that  of  obtaining  the  greatest  possible 
amount  of  the  highest  possible  mental  and  bodily 
powers.  It  is  not  a  question  as  to  whether  one  or  the 
other  shall  be  excluded,  but  as  to  which  shall  predomi- 
nate during  a  certain  period  of  life.  This  question 
really  lies  outside  the  limits  of  the  science  of  education, 
but  it  serves  to  make  more  clear  what  is  the  exact  scope 
of  the  science.  All  pure  science  must  confine  itself  to 
knowledge,  as  knowledge,  and  has  nothing  to  do,  di- 
rectly, with  what  use  is  made  of  it.  Such  a  distinction 
is  very  important  in  connection  with  the  definition  of 
education  previously  given. 

Ideas  of  Great  Thinkers- — Some  thoughts  from  the 
great  thinkers  and  educationists  of  the  past  will  show 
what  has  always  been  the  highest  conceptim  of  educa- 
tion, and  will  give  matter  for  further  anclater  reflec- 


NATURE   AND   SCOPE  39 

tion.  The  following  are  selected  from  Dr.  Barnard's 
"  Aphorisms  on  Education  "  : 

"  In  education  there  is  a  union  of  watchfulness  over 
the  progress  of  training,  and  of  a  course  of  discipline 
for  intellectual  and  bodily  development." — Plaio. 

"  The  mind  should  be  drilled  as  much  as  the  body." — 
Seiveca. 

"  The  object  of  education  is  ...  .  inward  develop- 
ment. " — Serveca, 

**  Education  is  to  prepare  the  mind  for  instruction, 
as  men  prepare  the  soil  before  sowing  seed  in  it." — 
Aristotle. 

"  The  general  problem  of  education  is  to  develop 
children  as  imperfect  beings  into  perfect  beings.  The 
better  part  of  man  is  the  reason,  which  must  therefore 
be  the  chief  object  of  education." — Aristotle. 

"  The  chief  problem  of  education  must  be  ....  to 
develop  harmoniously  and  naturally  the  various  facul- 
ties of  the  soul,  so  that  the  pupil  himself  shall  learn 
how  to  investigate  further  after  truth." — Heydenreich, 

"  The  design  of  education  is  ...  .  the  development 
of  what,  though  undeveloped,  is  capable  of  development, 
from  dependence  to  independence." — Karl  Schmidt. 

"  Man  is  not  clay,  which  the  educator  ....  can 
model  at  his  pleasure,  but  a  plant,  having  its  individual 
nature  and  form,  and  capable  only  of  being  cared  for 
by  him  as  by  a  gardener,  raised  up  to  its  full  growth, 
and  brought  to  its  greatest  possible  perfection." — 
Garve. 

"  As  the  body  must  be  strengthened  before  bodily 
labour  is  commenced,  so  the  mind  must  have  grown 


40  EDUCATION 

before  it  may  undertake  the  acquirement  of  art  and  of 
science." — Eduin  Bauer, 

'* The  essence  of  education  consists  in  this:  that 
each  department  of  human  activity  is  developed  in  the 
individual;  none  of  them  isolatedly,  but  each  in  a 
harmonious  relation  to  the  others." — Froebd. 

**  Examination  of  the  mental  faculties  and  of  their 
reference  to  instruction  is  absolutely  necessary." — 
Quintilian. 

"  Mental  training  must  gradually  and  progressively 
begin  in  the  same  way  in  which  the  mental  faculties 
of  the  child  themselves  develop." — Quintilian. 

"  The  understanding  is  not  a  vessel  that  needs  filling ; 
it  is  fuel  that  needs  kindling.  It  is  kindled  to  truth 
by  the  faculty  of  acquiring  knowledge." — Plutarch. 

"  Instruction  should  begin  in  early  youth,  and  should 
proceed  gradually,  according  to  the  development  of  the 
capacities." — Comenivs, 

**  Sound  education  stands  before  me  symbolised  by 
a  tree  planted  near  fertilising  water.  A  little  seed, 
which  contains  the  design  of  the  tree,  its  form  and  pro- 
portion, is  placed  in  the  soil.  See  how  it  germinates 
and  expands  into  trunk,  branches,  leaves,  flowers,  and 
fruit!  The  whole  tree  is  an  uninterrupted  chain  of 
organic  parts,  the  plan  of  which  existed  in  its  seed 
and  root.  Man  is  similar  to  the  tree.  In  the  new-bom 
child  are  hidden  those  faculties  which  are  to  unfold 
during  life." — Festaiozzi. 

To  the  above  it  may  be  added  that  Locke,  Bousseau, 
Rabelais,  Kant,  Fichte,  Herbart,  and  Spencer,  all  insist 
that  the  educating  processes  must  be  based  upon  and 


NATURE   AND   SCOPE  41 

conform  with  mental  development.  This,  of  course,  is 
possible  only  in  so  far  as  we  know  the  nature  of  mind,  and 
the  different  stages  of  growth  and  development  through 
which  it  passes.  That  there  are  great  differences 
between  the  mind  of  the  infant,  the  youth,  and  the 
adult,  whilst  the  minds  of  all  infants,  youths,  and  adults 
very  largely  resemble  each  other — indeed,  that  they 
exactly  agree  as  to  their  general  characteristics,  though 
differing  greatly  as  to  details — ^is  both  commonly 
recognised  and  scientifically  established.  It  is  for  this 
reason  that  a  common  system  of  educating  has  been 
found  possible,  and  that  a  science  of  education  has 
appeared  and  is  being  developed. 

Educational  Ends. — Many  different  views  have  been 
held,  and  are  still  held,  as  to  what  should  be  the  exact 
aim,  or  end,  of  education.  From  what  has  already 
been  said  it  will  be  seen  that  very  practical  views 
were  taken  in  ancient  times.  In  modern  days  opinions 
such  as  the  following  are  held :  "  The  perfection  of  our 
nature"  (J.  S.  Mill):  "Complete  living"  (Spencer): 
"  The  happiness  of  the  individual,  and  the  well-being 
of  the  State"  ("Cyclopaedia  of  Education"):  "A 
perfect  citizen : "  "A  completely  moral  man : "  &c. 
But  such  considerations  have  to  do  with  applied  educa- 
tion, and  not  with  education  as  a  science.  The  only 
end  of  education,  as  a  science,  is  educational  knowledge ; 
just  as  the  only  end  of  astronomy,  as  a  science^  is  astro- 
nomical knowledge. 


CHAPTER  II 

MIND,  AND  THE  GENERAL  NATURE  OF  MENTAL  LIFE 

In  the  physical  sciences  matter  and  motion  are  taken 
for  granted,  for  no  one  who  is  sane  would  think  of 
denying  that  such  things  exist,  and  indeed,  there  could 
be  no  such  sciences  unless  they  do  exist,  for  it  is  our 
knowledge  about  matter  and  motion  that  constitutes 
them.  We  do  not  begin  by  asking  "  Is  there  matter 
and  motion  ?  "  but  we  find  that  it  is  impossible  to  be 
unaware  of  the  phenomena  (appearances)  which  we 
call  by  those  names,  and  therefore  we  give  them  the 
names,  and  try  to  answer  the  questions :  *'  What  are 
they?"  or  '*What  are  their  parts  and  qualities?" 
"  What  do  they  do  ?  "  and  "  How  are  they  connected  with 
each  other,  and  with  things  in  general  ?  "  So  with  the 
mind  and  its  activities ;  we  begin  by  being  forced  to 
recognise  something  which  is  different  from  all  other 
things,  and  which  we  call  **  the  mind,"  and  then  we  go 
on  to  find  out  all  we  can  about  it. 

What  Mind  is. — To  put  this  in  quite  general  terms, 
we  may  say  that  all  would  agree  that  by  "the  mind" 
we  mean  our  power  of  knowing,  and  the  sum  of  our 
knowledge.  Of  course  this  does  not  express  all  that  is 
meant,  nor  is  it  a  strictly  scientific  definition.     It  is  the 


MIND  43 

work  of  the  science  of  psychology  to  show  in  detail  the 
full  meaning  of  the  name.  But  we  must  begin  with 
some  such  unquestionable  statement,  which  no  sane 
person  can  avoid  realising  the  meaning  of,  or  admitting 
the  truth  of,  about  the  kind  of  things  which  we  are 
going  to  study.  We  are  unable,  so  to  say,  to  start  from 
zero,  for,  obviously,  there  is  nothing  to  start  with,  and 
nothing  to  be  got  out  of  it. 

Man  is ;  and  man  has  the  power  to  perform  a  certain 
special  mental  function  which  is  called  reasoning.  Such 
is  the  nature  of  this  truth,  that  to  question  it  is  to 
prove  it ;  for  if  one  should  say :  "  We  do  not  know  that 
we  have  reason"  (the  power  of  knowing),  he  really 
asserts:  "I  know  (my  power  of  knowing  realises)  that 
we  do  not  know  that  we  have  reason  " — an  expression 
which  first  shows  the  use  of  reason  and  then  denies  its 
existence. 

Because  of  this  special  power  of  man  we  say  that 
men  know,  think,  reason,  remember,  feel,  perceive, 
believe,  doubt,  decide,  will,  &c.  &c.  It  is  these  facts 
of  ordinary  life,  known  to  every  one  in  the  same  way  as 
we  know  that  there  are  all  kinds  of  animals,  plants, 
&c.,  which  the  psychologist  has  to  analyse  and  try  to 
understand,  so  that  he  may  be  able  to  build  up  a 
science.  Now  this  kind  of  knowledge  about  the  mind 
is  gained  in  a  way  exactly  like  that  in  which  the 
scientific  knowledge  of  geology,  botany,  &c.,  is  obtained, 
viz.,  by  the  inductive  method,  which  has  already  been 
described.  Every  person  is  able  to  examine  his  mind, 
more  or  less  thoroughly  and  effectively  according  to  his 
training  and  skill  in  such  work.     For  example,  every 


44  EDUCATION 

one  can  go  over  again,  in  thought,  most,  if  not  all,  of  the 
important  thoughts  which  he  had  the  previous  day,  and 
can  examine,  analyse,  and  make  farther  judgments 
about  them,  as :  **  That  was  a  foolish  judgment,  because 
it  did  not  take  into  account  such-and-such  a  thought ; " 
**  That  judgment  was  a  very  clever  one,  for  it  managed 
to  give  exactly  the  right  weight  to  such-and-such 
points  in  the  thoughts  with  which  it  dealt ; "  and 
so  on. 

Again,  we  use  the  word  mind  as  a  verb  in  such  sentences 
as,  "I  cannot  mind  it,"  meaning  '*I  cannot  get  my 
mind  to  recall  and  think  about  something  which  it 
experienced  before."  Also,  we  use  such  expressions  as 
"  I  know  that  my  mind  is  agitated  and  excited,"  "  I 
have  a  very  intense  feeling  of  pain,  which  is  very  inter- 
mittent but  quite  regular,"  &c.  Some  insane  persons 
know  that  they  are  mad  on  certain  points.  All  these 
things  show  that  the  mind  is  able  to  observe  itself  in 
much  the  same  way  as  the  eye  is  able  to  observe 
physical  things. 

Psychology  is  in  method  similar  to  the  natural  sci- 
ences; indeed,  it  is  a  natural  science,  for  mind  is  as 
much  an  element  of  nature  as,  say,  electricity  or 
magnetism.  It  has  some  advantages  over  the  other 
sciences,  in  that  mind  is  always  with  us,  and  we  can 
usually  observe,  analyse,  and  reflect  upon  it  whenever 
we  wish. 

Let  us  take  for  granted  now  what  will  be  made 
clearer  later  on,  that  any  one  action  of  the  mind 
expresses,  more  or  less  fully  and  completely,  the  whole 
mind,  so  that  if  we  can  thoroughly  understand  it,  we 


MIND  45 

sliall  have  a  sound  knowledge  of  the  general  natnre  of 
mind.  In  the  same  way  as  a  single  dog  resembles  all 
dogs  of  his  kind,  and  this  class  is  similar  in  all  essential 
points  to  all  the  different  kinds  of  dogs,  so  that  we  get 
to  know  all  dogs  through  observing  and  getting  to 
understand  individuals  of  a  class,  and  making  this  the 
basis  for  observing  and  studying  other  classes ;  so,  also, 
by  analysing  and  understanding  separate  states  or  acts 
of  mind  we  come  to  know  the  whole  mind,  and  we  can 
take  this  as  a  basis  for  discovering  the  main  character- 
istics of  all  minds. 

Mind  Elements. — We  will,  therefore,  try  to  analyse 
separate  states,  or  acts  of  mind.  Suppose  that  a  person 
is  sitting  in  a  room  which  is  in  semi-darkness,  with 
eyes  wide  open,  but  not  looking  at  or  seeing  anything 
in  particular,  with  no  special  thought  occupying  the 
mind,  and  with  no  individual  sensation  occupying  the 
attention.  Suddenly  a  very  powerful  electric  light  is 
turned  on  from  a  bull's-eye  lantern,  and  the  rays  come 
straight  to  the  eyes.  What  will  be  the  effect  of  such  a 
condition  of  things  upon  the  mind  ?  In  the  case  of  a 
very  small  child  there  would  be  what  we  call  a  violent 
shock  to  the  feelings,  probably  causing  pain,  the  head 
would  most  likely  be  hurriedly  turned,  the  hands  would 
be  held  up  to  cover  the  eyes,  and  the  child  would  be 
aware  of  the  great  and  striking  change,  as  such,  from 
semi-darkness  to  intense  illumination  which  had  taken 
place.  An  adult  who  should  undergo  the  same  kind  of 
experience  would  have  the  same  kind  of  mental  effects, 
but  after  the  first  few  seconds  of  shock  and  surprise,  he 
would  be  aware  of  more  than  the  mere  fact  of  change 


46  EDUCATION 

from  semi-darkness  to  brilliant  light.  He  would 
doubtless  recognise,  in  a  vague  and  uncertain  way,  from 
which  quarter  the  light  came ;  he  would  know  not  only 
that  there  was  a  change,  but  also  have  some  idea  of  the 
general  nature  of  the  change ;  and  he  would  connect  this 
change  with  the  shock  which  he  felt.  Also,  his  action 
to  escape  the  disturbing  effects  of  the  experience  might 
be  more  deliberate.  But  both  the  infant  and  an  adult 
would,  at  first,  have  very  hazy  notions  of  anything 
other  than  the  overwhelming  realisation  of  the  fact  that 
they  were  intensely  affected  by  something. 

If  we  suppose  the  light  to  be  a  mild  one,  and  not  too 
abruptly  turned  on — all  other  conditions  remaining  the 
same — we  should  find  that  the  infant  would  give  no 
evidence  of  having  had- a  shock,  and  would  simply  turn 
its  eyes  toward  the  source  of  the  light,  out  of  curiosity 
as  we  say ;  still,  however,  the  chief  effect  would  be  the 
realisation  of  the  being  affected  by  something^  But  it 
would  also  be  vaguely  aware  of  the  fact  that  a  change 
had  taken  place.  With  the  adult,  however,  the  matter 
would  be  very  different.  The  change  would  probably 
be  sufficient  to  obtain  his  attention,  he  would  turn  his 
head  toward  the  source  of  light,  if  necessary,  and 
definitely  use  his  eyes  and  thoughts  to  discover  all  he 
cared  to  about  the  light.  He  would  be  likely  to  recog- 
nise if  it  was  a  light  produced  by  electricity;  both 
from  its  general  character  as  light,  and  from  the 
mechanical  nature  of  the  lamp,  &c.,  which  was  used  in 
connection  with  it.  Also,  he  would  distinguish  between 
the  centre  of  illumination  and  the  illuminated  track. 
He  would  also  trace,  almost  instantaneously,  the  limitr, 


MIND  47 

or  shape  of  the  illuminated  track.  And  this  being 
aware  of  what  affected  him,  and  how  it  appeared  to 
him,  would  be  the  principal  effects  of  the  experience. 

We  will  take  one  other  case  for  the  purpose  of  illus- 
tration. We  will  suppose  that  the  person  who  has 
the  experience  is  one  who  has  just  before  stolen  some 
thing  in  the  room,  and  has  no  idea  that  any  one  else  is 
there.  The  chief  effect  it  will  have  upon  him  is  to 
cause  him  to  take  very  definite,  decided,  and  elaborate 
action.  He  will  endeavour  to  hide  himself  completely 
from  the  light,  if  that  be  possible,  and  will  do  a  lot  of 
complex  and,  possibly,  clever  things  to  this  end  ;  or  he 
will  at  once  begin  to  run  away,  and  make  all  sorts  of 
dodgings,  &c.,  to  escape  being  caught.  Or  he  might 
immediately  set  his  mind  to  work  to  invent  some  ex- 
cuses for  being  there,  and  to  account  for  his  having  the 
stolen  article.  He  will  of  .course  be  aware,  in  a  more 
or  less  definite  way,  of  the  kind  of  light  there  is,  and  he 
will  realise  that  a  change  in  his  surroundings  is  affect- 
ing him — indeed,  this  will  be  intensified  by  his  fears ; 
but  the  greatest  effect  will  be  that  of  causing  him  to  go 
through  a  series  of  thoughts  involving  actions. 

In  the  above  instances  we  see  that  there  are  always 
three  elements  or  characteristics  in  a  state  of  mind: 
the  being  more  or  less  affected  by  our  surroundings, 
especially  if  there  is  a  violent  or  striking  change  in 
them ;  the  being  aware,  to  a  greater  or  lesser  degree,  of 
the  nature  of  the  effect  which  is  produced  in  us  by  our 
being  affected,  and  of  what  it  is  that  so  affects  us,  i.e., 
what  are  the  different  parts,  &c.,  of  it;  and  the  being 
led  to  do  something,  either  with  the  mind  or  body,  or 


48  EDCTCATION 

both,  in  consequence  of  being  affected,  and,  in  some 
cases,  of  being  aware  of  the  nature  of  what  affects  us. 
We  may  sum  up  these  three  points  by  saying  that  mind 
is  always  being  acted  upon  by,  and  reacting  on,  other 
things,  or  acting  on,  and  being  reacted  upon,  by  other 
things ;  and  that  such  states  of  action  of  mind  can  be 
analysed  into  three  elements  or  characteristics — feeling, 
knowing,  and  willing — the  technical  names  for  the  above 
described  elements. 

The  elements  of  feeling,  knowing,  and  willing  are 
always  present  in  every  act  of  mind,  but  one  or  other 
of  them  has,  as  a  rule,  greater  force  than  the  other  two. 
Hence  we  are  able  the  more  easily  and  clearly  to  un- 
derstand how  they  differ  from  each  other,  and  what 
conditions  are  favourable  to  each.  The,  fact  that  they 
are,  after  all,  only  three  phases,  or  characteristics,  of  one 
and  the  same  thing,  must  never  be  lost  sight  of. 

General  Nature  of  Mind. —  Mind  is,  however,  much 
more  than  a  mere  collection  of  feelings,  knowings,  and 
willings,  or  of  the  results  of  its  activities.  We  must 
begin  with  a  mind ;  that  is  to  say,  there  must  be  the 
original  germ  mind,  which  has  all  the  general  powers 
that  ever  belong  to  it,  though  in  an  undeveloped  state 
at  first — and  at  last  if  conditions  are  never  favourable 
for  developing  them.  Again,  mind  is  a  living  organism, 
for  it  is  always  in  some  condition  of  systematic,  pur- 
poseful, and  progressive  activity.  Therefore  we  must 
think  of  it  as  having  a  continuous  existence,  for  directly 
it  absolutely  and  entirely  stops,  it  ceases  to  be,  so  far 
as  we  know  of  it  scientilically. 

All  normal  minds,  like  other  organisms,  have  their 


MIND  49 

progressive  stages  answering  to  infancy,  youth,  maturity, 
and  decay.  These  stages,  in  ordinary  cases,  mean  a 
great  deal  more  than  mere  growth  or  increase  in  size. 
There  is  an  inevitable  increase  in  skill  and  power,  or 
development.  To  what  extent  this  development  is 
carried  will  depend  upon  the  native  quality,  so  to  call 
it,  of  the  particular  nund  itself,  and  upon  the  kind  of 
nourishment  which  it  receives.  The  indispensable 
condition  for  any  and  all  growth  and  development  is 
exercise.  If  any  power  of  mind  be  not  exercised,  it 
will  inevitably  become  weak,  and  will  waste  away  until 
finally  it  may  be  impossible  to  make  it  act  at  all. 
On  the  other  hand,  any  power  which  is  constantly 
exercised,  so  long  as  the  exercise  is  not  excessive  in 
force  or  duration,  will  necessarily  become  stronger,  and 
more  skilful  in  some  direction  or  other.  This  law 
appears  to  be  universally  true  of  living  organisms. 

But  it  is  not  a  mere  heap,  or  even  a  mechanically 
connected  whole  dovetailed  together,  so  to  say;  but 
each  part  of  it,  and  every  one  of  its  actions,  grows  out 
of  that  which  precedes  it,  and  grows  into  that  which 
follows  it.  If  mind  were  not  thus  coherent,  our  lives 
would  never  mean  much  more  to  us  than  the  experience 
of  the  passing  moment. 

Further,  it  is  not  only  coherent,  but  this  coherence  is 
both  general  and  special;  for  the  whole  of  the  life 
history  of  the  mind  is  a  complete  and  single  whole. 
And  besides  this,  within  this  complete  whole,  all  those 
separate  items  in  the  whole  which  are  similar  to  each 
other,  form  themselves  into  a  subordinate  coherent 
whole,  thus  both  increasing   their  own  value  for  the 

D 


50  EDUCATION 

whole,  and  helping  to  bring  out  the  significance  of  other 
such  subordinate  groups,  and  being  helped  in  like 
manner  by  them.  Thus  mind  is  systematised ;  ^.e.,  is 
a  great  system  consisting  of  a  number  of  inter-related 
systems.  If  this  were  not  so,  very  little  in  the  way  of 
higher  development  would  be  possible,  and  our  mental 
life  would  consist  of  little  more  than  circles  of  repeated 
experiences. 

Finally,  all  parts,  acts,  elements,  items,  &c.,  of  mind 
are  so  inter-related,  inter-dependent,  and  inter-active, 
that  they  always  act  as  a  whole,  and  always  make  up  a 
unit.  So  mind  is  unified — i.e.,  it  is  a  unit  which  is  a 
unity.  This  it  is  which  enables  us  to  always  speak  of 
our  "self"  as  being  always  the  same  individual.  It 
is  necessary  to  get  some  idea  of  the  nature  of  mind, 
as  thus  described,  now,  although  it  cannot  be  fully 
understood  till  the  whole  of  the  outlines  of  psychology 
has  been  intelligently  studied,  because  it  may  at  least 
serve  as  a  warning  against  some  misleading  and  very 
mischievous  ideas  on  the  subject. 

Again,  we  may  say  that  all  minds  are  very  much  like 
each  other  with  regard  to  all  their  general  features 
and  facts,  though  very  much  unlike  as  to  the  details 
of  these.  Minds  are  both  infinitely  like  and  infinitely 
unlike  each  other ;  but  it  is  the  likeness,  and  not  the 
unlikeness,  which  is  ordinarily  predominant,  and  is 
always  most  important  and  significant  for  us.  Were 
this  not  so,  the  world  would  be  a  chaos,  so  far  as  man 
ia  concerned  in  it. 

There  are  many  different  forms  of  mental  activities 
besides   those   already   mentioned — e.g,,   remembering, 


^ 


MIND  51 

imagining,  attending,  perceiving,  Ac;  and  it  is  neces- 
sary to  have  a  general  name  for  all  these.  The  word 
which  is  commonly  used  as  the  name  for  any  and 
every  form  of  mental  activity  is  consciousness.  Any 
activity  of  the  mind  is,  therefore,  called  *'  a  form  of 
consciousness,"  or  **  a  state  of  consciousness."  We  say 
that  a  person  is  conscious  of  a  thing  when  his  mind 
so  acts  as  to  take  account  of  it. 

Definitions  of  Psychology  and  Mind. — Mind  may  be 
studied  from  several  points  of  view.  It  may  be  re- 
garded as  a  something  which  has  the  power  of  knowing, 
and  one  may  try  to  discover  what  it  is  that  makes 
up  this  something  which  has  the  power  to  know. 
Such  a  study  of  mind  is  a  branch  of  metaphysics.  Or 
min4  may  be  thought  of  as  that  which  shows  us  by  its 
power  of  reasoning  how  all  things  are  related  to  each 
other,  and  may  be  studied  for  the  purpose  of  knowing 
how  it  thus  relates,  and  gives  a  proper  value,  to  all 
the  parts  and  powers  of  the  universe.  This  view  of 
mind  gives  us  philosophy.  Again,  we  may  look  upon 
it  as  a  living  organism,  or  a  kind  of  living  machinery 
whose  parts  are  so  made  as  to  work  together  in  the 
best  way  to  do  a  certain  kind  of  work.  From  this 
point  of  view  it  will  be  studied  for  the  purpose  of 
finding  out  what  causes  it  to  work,  what  is  the  exact 
detail  of  its  working,  and  what  is  the  nature  of  the 
products  of  its  work.  This  it  is  which  constitutes  the 
science  of  psychology. 

Hence  we  may  define  psychology  as  the  science  of 
states  of  consciousness.  Notice  that  we  do  not  say 
"the  science  of  mind,"  for  this  is  too  wide,  since  it 


52  EDUCATION 

would  include  metaphysics,  philosopliy,  logic,  and 
ethics,  all  of  which  have  to  do  with  some  side  of  the 
study  of  mind.  Compare  with  this  the  fact  that  the 
study  of  the  tody  includes  the  sciences  of  physiology, 
anatomy,  biology,  medicine,  &c. 

As  the  metaphysician,  philosopher,  and  psychologist, 
each  takes  a  different  standpoint  in  the  study  of  mind, 
so  each  has  a  different  idea — with  regard  to  his  par- 
ticular science  only — of  what  mind  is.  For  the  psy- 
chologist, mind  is  the  permanent  unity  of  conscious- 
ness. This  expression  will  doubtless  have  sOme  definite 
meaning  after  what  has  already  been  said,  but  it  can 
only  be  fully  and  clearly  grasped  after  much  fuller  and 
deeper  study. 

How  to  study  Mind.— Some  further  details  about  the 
three  great  elements,  or  characteristics,  of  mind  are 
necessary  before  we  proceed  to  consider  that  which 
most  concerns  education,  as  such,  viz.,  the  development 
of  the  mental  life.  These  will  be  described  as  briefly 
as  possible,  and  the  student  will  be  left  to  do  what  we 
may  call  the  laboratory  work  for  himself.  He  must 
deliberately  and  carefully  set  himself  to  observe  and 
examine  his  own  states  of  consciousness ;  he  must,  as 
far  as  is  possible,  observe  the  signs,  in  the  acts  and 
general  behaviour  of  other  human  beings,  which  seem 
to  be  evidence  of  their  having  similar  mental  ex- 
periences to  his  own ;  he  must  ask  for  information  from 
oi  her  persons  as  to  their  experiences ;  and  he  should 
endeavour  to  test  his  conclusions  by  simple  experi- 
ments. For  example,  after  trying  to  study  a  subject, 
when  tired,  and  having  observed  the  mental  effects,  he 


L 


MIND  53 

should  see  how  far  his  analysis  agrees  with  subsequent 
analyses  of  his  experiences,  under,  as  nearly  as  possible, 
similar  conditions. 

This  looking  into  one's  own  mind  is  called  intro- 
spection. If  one  thinks  about  it  a  moment,  it  will  be 
recognised  that  to  try  to  observe  a  state  of  mind  while 
it  is  actually  going  on,  introduces  a  new  element  into 
the  state  of  consciousness,  and  more  or  less  changes 
the  original  state.  A  person  cannot  try  to  observe  a 
state  of  anger,  without  at  the  same  time  becoming  less 
angry  and  more  reasonable,  and  so,  very  much  altering 
that  which  he  desires  to  look  into.  It  is  therefore 
necessary  always  to  allow  for  this,  and  to  put  ourselves 
through  such  experiences  again,  if  we  can,  carefully 
avoiding  any  eflfort  to  observe  them  at  the  time,  but 
trying  to  recall  them,  as  soon  after  as  we  find  most 
effective  "for  the  purpose  of  analysing  and  studying 
them. 

Sensations  and  Presentations.— Before  noticing  the 
details  of  feeling,  knowing,  and  willing,  it  is  desirable 
to  say  something  about  the  conditions  which  may  be 
said  directly  to  influence  the  mind,  and  which  cause 
the  mind  to  re-act  upon  such  influence.  Everything  in 
the  physical  world  is,  to  a  greater  or  lesser  degree,  in  a 
state  of  activity  in  one  form  or  another.  These  forms 
of  activity  we  call  molecular  (i.e.,  of  the  smallest  con- 
ceivable particles  of  matter),  molar  (i.e.^  of  ordinary 
large  or  small  bodies),  electrical,  chemical,  magnetic, 
&c.,  motion  or  force.  Under  favourable  conditions, 
the  activities  thus  exercised  will  affect  some  one  or 
more  of   our   senses,  through  the   special   machinery 


54  EDUCATION 

which  they  have  for  receiving  and  discriminating  them, 
e.g,^  a  coloured  object  acts  upon  the  eye  by  means  of 
waves  of  light,  an  odorous  object  acts  upon  the  sense 
of  smell  through  minute  particles  which  chemically 
stimulate  the  delicate  membrane  in  the  nose.  Our 
sense  organs  being  thus  put  into  a  special  condition 
of  activity  by  these  external  stimuli,  they  therefore 
affect  the  nervous  system,  and  cause  it  to  act  in  a 
particular  way.  This  nervous,  or  neural,  activity,  is 
generally  passed  on  to  the  brain  or  spinal  cord. 
Answering  to  and  interpreting  for  the  mind  these 
activities  of  the  body,  there  is  an  act  of  consciousness. 
Such  is  the  most  usual  way  in  which  a  state  of  con- 
sciousness is  brought  about. 

We  cannot  say  that  the  consciousness  is  caused  by 
the  bodily  activities  in  the  same  way  that  the  bodily 
activities  cause  each  other ;  neither  can  w^  say — in 
the  sense  of  being  able  to  demonstrate  the  fact — that 
consciousness  is  added  to  the  other  activities  from  some 
other  source.  Therefore  we  must  regard  them  as  being 
equally  fundamental  though  inseparable.  Hence  we 
speak  of  them  as  being  correlated,  or  of  having  a  kind  of 
parallel  dependence  upon  each  other,  and  not  a  sequent 
dependence  (one  thing  following  or  coming  from  an- 
other as  a  result  of  the  former  having  occurred). 

If  we  regard  the  bodily  and  the  external  activities  as 
making  up  a  group  by  themselves,  apart  from  the  act  of 
consciousness,  then  we  speak  of  such  as  an  impression. 
If  we  think  of  the  impression  and  the  accompanying  act 
of  consciousness  as  forming  one  thing,  then  we  call  such 
a  sensation.     A  sensation,  therefore,  is  the  condition  of 


MIND  55 

raind  whicli  accompanies  a  definite  activity  of  either  of 
the  senses.  Sensations  may  be  looked  upon  as  the  food 
of  the  mind  by  which  it  keeps  itself  alive — i.e.,  thinking 
— and  out  of  which  it  builds  up  its  knowledge,  and 
finally  produces  its  highest  developments.  It  has  been 
well  said  that  nothing  is  in  the  mind  which  was  not 
first  in  the  senses — or,  we  may  say,  in  sensations. 

But  when  once  thoughts  have  begun  to  accumulate 
in  the  mind,  through  its  re-action  upon  the  influences 
of  impressions,  then  these  thoughts  themselves  are  re- 
acted upon,  as  individuals,  by  the  mind  as  a  whole, 
and  thus  minister  to  mental  growth  and  development. 
Any  sensation,  or  thought,  &c.,  that  is  in  this  way 
taken  account  of  by  the  mind  is  called  a  presentation. 
In  other  words,  a  presentation  is  anything  which  can 
enter  into  and  become  a  part  of  the  mental  life. 

Feelings — Peeling  is  an  element,  t.e.,  it  is  such  that  we 
can  get  nothing  from  it  which  is  other  than  itself.  No 
one  can  ever  know  what  feeling  is  unless  he  has 
feelings,  any  more  than  a  man  blind  from  his  birth  can 
know  what  colour  is.  It  is,  therefore,  impossible  to  say 
exactly  what  it  is.  We  can  really  only  say  that  there 
is  that  which  is  different  from  all  other  things  that  we 
know,  and  which  we  have  named  feeling,  and  then  try 
to  find  some  general  expression  which  shall  serve  to 
mark  it  off  as  clearly  as  possible  from  other  elements. 
For  this  purpose  we  may  say  that  feeling  is  the  ex- 
pression by  mind,  for  mind,  of  the  value  of  the  fact 
that  we  live  and  move  and  have  our  being  :  that  virtue 
has  gone  out  of  or  come  into  mind :  of  the  realising  of 
general  or  special  (local)  well-being  or  ill-being,  comfort 


56  EDUCATION 

or  discomfort,  pleasure  or  pain :  which  must,  to  a  greater 
or  lesser  degree,  accompany  every  act  of  consciousness. 
It  is,  so  to  say,  the  general  tone  of  a  state  of  conscious- 
ness which  results  from  the  nature  of  that  which  acts 
upon  the  mind,  and  from  the  nature  of  the  reaction 
which  mind  itself  makes.  Feeling,  therefore,  is  always 
connected  with  a  presentation,  and  will  largely  de- 
pend upon,  and  vary  with,  the  general  character  of  the 
presentation. 

For  this  reason  we  speak  of  various  kinds  of  feelings, 
which  are  connected  with  different  classes  of  presenta- 
tions. Those  feelings  which  accompany  sense  pre- 
sentations are  termed  sensuous  feelings.  A  change  to 
pleasant  coolness  from  too  hot  surroundings  gives  the 
feeling  of  being  refreshed  or  invigorated;  whilst  the 
change  to  pleasant  warmth  from  too  cold  surroundings 
gives  the  feeling  of  being  comfortable  or  being  shel- 
tered. Having  too  little  light  for  any  length  of  time, 
when  in  a  wakeful  condition,  gives  the  feeling  of  being 
depressed  or  being  mournful.  Experiences  make  us 
feel  gay,  sad,  heavy,  excited,  &c.  Sometimes  we  have 
feelings  of  repose,  unrest,  exhaustion,  weariness, 
strength,  weakness,  &c.  The  general  body  sensations 
make  us  feel  ill,  well,  lively,  sleepy,  &c. 

Then  there  are  the  feelings  which  accompany  the 
activities  of  the  mind  itself,  and  which  are  called  in- 
tellectual feelings.  If  we  judge  that  things  are  going 
smoothly  and  satisfactorily  we  feel  content,  happy, 
satisfied,  hopeful,  &c. :  if  we  judge  that  matters  are 
progressing  badly,  we  feel  discontented,  troubled,  dis- 
satisfied,  &C.     When  our  thoughts  flow  on  easily  and 


MINJD  57 

harmoDiously,  we  have  feelings  of  mental  ease,  &c. 
The  frequent  repetition  of  an  experience  calling  for  a 
similar  judgment  each  time  gives  the  feeling  of 
familiarity;  and,  if  it  is  too  often  repeated,  it  may 
cause  the  feeling  of  being  bored.  Experiences  which 
seem  to  demand  judgments  that  are  at  first  sight 
contradictory,  unusual,  or  strange,  give  the  feelings  of 
surprise,  contrast,  conflict,  &c.  Presentations  which  do 
not  seem  worth  the  trouble  of  judging  about  at  all 
are  accompanied  by  feelings  of  triviality,  contempt, 
insipidity,  &c.  If  after  some  difficulty  we  are  able  to 
solve  a  mental  problem,  we  get  such  feelings  as  those 
of  reconciliation,  harmony,  success,  power,  &c. 

Besides  the  above  there  are  the  feelings  which  go 
with  the  appreciation  of  the  forms  of  things,  i.e.,  with 
regard  to  their  beauty,  or  otherwise.  These  are  known 
as  the  aesthetic  feelings.  Also,  there  are  those  which 
belong  to  the  appreciation  of  the  value  of  conduct,  i.e., 
of  acts  as  related  to  an  ideal  standard.  These  are 
called  moral  feelings.  The  former  include  such  feel- 
ings as  those  of  harmony  or  balance  of  outline  and 
parts,  rhythm,  discord,  &c. ;  and  the  latter  embrace 
such  as  the  right,  the  wrong,  the  good,  the  bad,  the 
pure,  &c. 

Underlying  and  accompanying  all  these  different 
kinds  of  feelings,  there  is  always  much  or  little  of 
the  element  of  pleasure  or  pain.  The  former  seems  to 
accompany  all  those  states  of  consciousness  in  which 
the  stimulus  is  not  too  violent  or  too  feeble,  unduly 
prolonged  or  too  abrupt ;  and  where  the  presentation 
contains  nothing  that  is  in  itself  harmful  to  mind,  and 


58  EDUCATION 

where  the  mind  itself  is  in  a  sound  condition.  The 
latter  is  present  when  the  stimulus  is  either  too  violent 
or  too  feeble,  too  prolonged  or  too  abrupt ;  when  the 
presentation  contains  something  which  is  in  itself 
harmful  to  mind;  or  when  the  mind  itself  is  in  an 
unsound  state.. 

It  is  found  that  by  repeating  pleasurable  or  painful 
sensations  of  small  intensity,  at  suitable  regular  inter- 
vals, there  is  an  accumulation  of  the  pleasurable  or 
painful  effects  of  the  later  stimulations.  Compare,  for 
example,  the  fact  that  prisoners  have  been  driven  mad 
by  the  agony  produced  by  the  constant  falling  of  drops 
of  water  upon  their  heads. 

Intensely  pleasurable  or  painful  feelings  appear  to 
affect  the  whole  brain,  so  that  it  becomes  generally 
active,  and  all  parts  of  the  body  are  stimulated  and 
affected  by  the  state  of  feeling.  Thus  a  person  who  has 
received  some  very  gratifying  news  may  be  so  intensely 
glad  that  nothing  short  of  jumping,  singing,  shouting, 
laughing,  and  dancing,  seems  able  to  express  his  joy. 

Emotion. — It  often  happens  that  the  element  of 
feeling  in  a  state  of  consciousness  is  so  intense  that 
it  may  be  said  practically  to  monopolise  the  mental  con- 
dition at  the  moment.  If,  for  example,  a  person  has 
a  keen  sense  of  justice,  and  he  is  treated  with  very 
great  injustice,  it  generally  results  in  his  becoming 
very  angry  ;  and  so  great  is  the  mental  conflict,  so  acute 
the  feeling  of  disgust,  pain,  outrage,  &c.,  that  he 
realises  little  else  at  the  moment  but  the  intensity  of 
his  feelings.  This  is  usually  accompanied  by  an  over- 
whelming   tendency   to   do   something   to   remedy   or 


MIND  59 

revenge  the  wrong.  But  so  absorbing  are  these  two 
factors  that  there  is  no  power  to  exercise  the  judgment 
properly.  The  result  is  a  kind  of  blind  energy  of 
action,  which  is  often  most  disastrous.  It  is  for  such 
reasons  that  we  speak  of  anger  as  a  short  madness. 

A  good  evidence  of  the  effect  of  such  an  excess  of 
feeling  upon  the  judgment  is  the  fact  that  an  angry 
person  will  often  declare  that  he  was  never  cooler  in  his 
life.  So,  too,  love,  hatred,  &c.,  so  prejudice  the  judgment, 
that  all  kinds  of  pervertings,  ignorings,  exaggeratings, 
and  so  on,  take  place  in  our  judgments,  without  the 
least  desire  or  intention  that  they  should,  indeed  often 
in  spite  of  an  effort  to  prevent  them. 

Emotion  may  be  defined  as  an  excess  of  feeling.  In 
every  emotion  there  is  a  disturbance  of  the  mental 
balance  through  an  excess  of  feeling,  so  that  feeling 
itself  and  willing  are  violent  and  absorbing,  whilst 
knowing  (in  the  form  of  accurate  judging)  is  always 
prejudiced  and  sometimes  almost  entirely  destroyed. 
Any  of  the  previously  mentioned  feelings  may  become 
emotional  in  their  character.  Gaiety  may  be  inten- 
sified till  it  "becomes  a  frenzy  of  delight,  sadness  may 
turn  to  melancholy,  illness  to  agony,  hopefulness  to 
yearning,  trouble  to  despair,  surprise  to  wonder, 
strangeness  to  terror,  contempt  to  loathing,  success  to 
conceit,  beauty  to  voluptuousness,  rhythm  to  monotony, 
purity  to  prudery,  &c. 

Passion.— In  some  cases  individuals  possess  or  acquire 
a  habitual  inclination  for,  and  susceptibility  to,  certain 
kinds  of  emotion.  Some  persons  soon  become  absorbed 
in  the  emotions  which  music  arouses,  others  are  carried 


60  EDaCATION 

away  by  the  beauties  of  scenery,  some  becopae  exhila- 
rated by  physical  activity,  &c.  When  there  is  such 
an  invariable  disposition  to  an  emotional  condition,  we 
say  that  a  person  has  a  passion  for  such-and-such 
things.  Hence  we  may  define  passion  as  a  permanent 
tendency  to  a  particular  kind  of  emotional  outbursts. 
Thus,  a  man  who  constantly  gets  angry  is  said  to  have 
a  passionate  nature. 

Feeling  as  Egoistic  and  Altruistic. — A  very  important 
feature  in  the  development  of  feeling — viz.,  the  change 
of  its  general  character  with  regard  to  the  object  to 
which  it  directs  the  general  activity  of  the  individual — 
must  be  carefully  considered.  At  the  beginning  of 
life,  when  there  is  only  the  power  to  regulate  action  to 
a  very  limited  extent,  every  feeling  seems  to  demand 
merely  its  own  satisfaction ;  for  if  it  is  painful,  there  is 
a  struggle  to  get  relief,  and  if  it  is  pleasant,  there  is 
an  endeavour  to  prolong  it.  The  healthy  little  child 
screams  and  struggles  most  lustily  when  what  it  likes 
is  taken  away  from  it,  or  when  what  it  dislikes  is  given 
to  it,  or  when  what  it  desires  is  not  given  to  it. 

It  is  often  said  that  a  very  young  child  is  most 
utterly  and  absolutely  selfish.  This  is  true,  if  we  do 
not  understand  the  word  selfish  to  mean  that  the  child 
chooses  its  own  good  in  preference  to  the  good  of  another. 
It  is  unable  to  make  such  a  choice,  for  it  has  neither  the 
knowledge  nor  the  judgment  required.  But  it  most 
decidedly  and  invariably  seeks  what  seems  to  it  desirable. 
And  this  is,  at  this  period,  most  proper  and  inevitable, 
for  its  feelings  practically  make  up  all  that  it  knows,  all 
that  can  make  it  act,  and  therefore  all  that  it  has  anything 


MIND  61 

to  do  with,  in  so  far  as  its  own  conscionsness  is  concerned. 
Its  life  consists  chiefly  of  feelings,  often  very  intense 
(emotions),  and  it  is  necessary  that  these  should  be 
properly  attended  to.  The  whole  of  the  individual's 
life  is,  so  to  say,  self-centred.  There  is  no  reference  to 
anything  outside  his  own  conscious  experiences,  as 
indeed  there  cannot  be,  for  nothing  of  the  outside  is  so 
known  as  to  lead  to  such  a  reference. 

Feeling  which  thus  appears  only  to  direct  the 
general  activity  of  the  individual  to  the  securing  of  his 
own  advantage,  so  as  to  provide  in  the  most  direct 
way  for  self-preservation,  is  said  to  be  egoistic.  There 
is  always  more  or  less  of  this  characteristic  in  every 
state  of  feeling — since,  after  all,  feeling  is  of  the  self, 
through  the  self,  and  for  the  self — but  it  may  be 
mainly  passive  or  active.  In  its  active  form  it  may  be 
either  spontaneous,  as  in  early  life,  or  selective,  as  in 
later  life. 

When  knowledge  of  the  external  world  begins  to  be 
definite  and  clear,  and  when  through  the  feeling  of 
relation  the  individual  recognises  that  he  is  but  a  part 
of  the  great  world  around  him,  from  which  he  receives 
so  much  and  to  which  he  gives  much,  then  his  feelings 
take  a  broader  reference,  and  embrace  more  than  the 
self-centred  interests  of  his  own  life.  For  example, 
a  child  learns  that  its  feelings  of  pleasure  are 
largely  due  to  certain  actions  of  its  mother  or  nurse. 
Then  there  is  no  longer  the  mere  realising  of  a 
pleasure  and  the  effort  to  prolong  it,  but  there  is  also, 
in  the  total  feeling,  the  germ  of  the  element  of  what 
adults  call  the  feeling  of  gratitude  towards  the  mother 


62  EDUCATION 

or  nurse.  Such  a  disposition  to  include  other  persons 
and  things,  as  parts  of  the  conditions  which  make  up, 
or  bring  about,  one  of  the  feelings,  extends  to  more  and 
more  objects  as  time  goes  on. 

Not  only  do  we  thus  include  them  as  parts  of  the 
conditions  of  our  feelings,  but  there  is  also  in  our 
feelings  an  element  which  makes  for  pleasure,  or  pain, 
according  as  we  think  that  others  are  well  affected,  or 
ill  affected,  towards  us.  Thus  if  a  child  is  scolded 
whilst  being  given  some  toy  which  it  has  been  crying 
for,  the  influence  of  the  former  action  may  over-ride 
that  of  the  latter,  so  that  the  little  one  is  still  unhappy 
though  it  has  obtained  what  it  desired. 

Because  of  this  realisiug  of  our  relation  to  and  de- 
pendence on  others,  it  will  often  be  the  case  that  a 
child  will  cry  if  it  hears  another  cry,  or  sees  signs  of 
pain  and  distress.  This  is  doubtless  because  the  grief 
of  another  is  disturbing  to  itself.  The  consequence  of 
such  a  state  may  be  either  that  the  child  tries  to  get 
away  from  the  sound  and  sight  of  the  distressed  one, 
or  it  may  try  to  soothe  or  succour  him.  In  either  case 
there  is  probably  as  much,  if  not  more,  anxiety  to  get 
relief  for  oneself  as  for  the  other.  It  is  most  likely 
that  there  is  the  wish  to  relieve  another  so  as  to  relieve 
oneself  from  being  disturbed  by  him. 

The  taking  more  or  less  account,  in  this  way,  of  the 
feelings  of  another,  in  so  far  as  they  tend  to  help  or 
hinder  our  own  feelings,  is  what  is  ordinarily  called 
sympathy,  i.e.,  the  feeling  with  another.  Because  it 
includes  feeling  for  oneself  as  well  as  for  another,  it  is 
classified  as  ego-al  ruistic  feeling.     There  is,  so  to  say, 


MIND  63 

a  transferring  of  the  consideration  of  oneself  to  the 
thought  of  what  some  other  must  be  feeling,  through 
the  same  or  similar  conditions,  because  the  condition  of 
such  an  one  may,  or  does,  aflfect  us.  .The  different 
feelings  which  come  under  this  class  are  commonly 
known  as  the  sentiments. 

Love,  hatred,  jealousy,  respect,  reverence,  admiration, 
shame,  dishonour,  &c.,  are  all  feelings  which  involve 
the  taking  account  of  others  and  their  feelings,  in 
relation  with  our  own,  and  are,  therefore,  sentiments. 
Shame,  for  instance,  generally  arises  from  our  realising 
what  others  feel  towards  us  because  of  what  we  have 
done,  so  that  the  thought  of  their  feelings  towards  us 
causes  us  to  experience  this  special  kind  of  feeling. 

Now  this  reference  to  the  feelings  of  others  may  go 
so  far  as  almost  to  entirely  shut  out  any  reference  to 
our  own  feeling,  other  than  to  the  feeling  of  wanting 
to  help  another.  It  sometimes  happens  that  a  person 
who  is  himself  unable  to  swim  is  so  moved  by  the 
appeals  for  help  of  one  who  is  drowning,  that  he  will 
jump  into  the  water,  with  the  idea  of  rendering  assist- 
ance. In  such  an  action  there  is  rather  an  absorbing 
of  oneself  in  the  feelings  of  another,  than  the  realising 
of  what  the  experience  means  for  oneself.  A  feel- 
ing, which  results  in  taking  no  account  of  oneself  in 
the  realising  of  the  feelings  of  another,  is  termed 
altruistic  feeling.  It  is  shown  in  cases  of  pure  dis- 
interestedness, self-sacrifice,  self-devotion,  heroism, 
martyrdom,  &c. 

Knowing. — Knowing  is,  like  feeling,  an  original  and 
fundamental  power  of  mind.     It  is  also  an  element. 


64  EDUCATION 

It.  is  the  power  by  which  mind  takes  account  of  what 
happens  to  it,  in  the  sense  that  it  gives  to  each  of  the 
experiences,  their  parts  and  powers,  a  meaning  and 
value  for  mind  itself,  so  that  it  becomes  acquainted  with 
its  own  nature  and  the  nature  of  the  physical  world :  is 
aware  of  the  repetition  of  experiences  like  to  those  it  has 
had  before:  is  able  rightly  to  appreciate  the  relation 
of  the  different  details  of  experiences,  and  that  which 
gives  rise  to  them  :  and  can  guide  the  activities  of  the 
body,  and  of  itself,  in  relation  to  their  surroundings 
and  well-being.  It  is  the  mental  realisation  of  likeness 
and  difierence — assimilation  and  discrimination. 

Just  as  vitality  is  both  the  result  and  the  being  of  a 
living  body,  so  knowing  is  both  the  special  result  and 
nature  of  mind.  Knowing  expresses  the  highest  value 
of  mind's  activity.  It  is  the  purely  mental  part  in- 
volved in  an  experience,  and  it  remains  for  mind  after 
the  experience  as  such  has  passed. 

Attention. — It  has  already  been  pointed  out  that 
mind  reacts,  according  to  its  own  proper  nature,  upon 
every  influence  which  acts  upon  it.  It  may  also  be 
looked  upon  as  taking  action  on  its  own  behalf,  either 
in  answer  to  some  stimulus  or  by  way  of  exercising 
its  powers  on  its  surroundings.  These  reactions  and 
actions  may  be  regarded  as  the  efforts  made  by  mind 
itself  to  take  in,  and  appreciate,  whatever  it  can. 
Like  every  other  organism,  it  is  always  taking  in  and 
giving  out  different  kinds  of  material.  This  definite 
and  purposeful  working  of  mind  is  called  attention. 
That  is,  attention  is  the  activity  of  mind  as  engaged 
in   putting   or   keeping  itself  in    inter-acbivity    with 


MIND  65 

some  influence,  so  as  to  take  it  in  and  take  account 
of  it.  It  is  the  minding  of  experiences.  Thus  it  is 
that,  since  mind  is  always  more  or  less  active,  know- 
ing is  always  being  increased  both  in  extent  and 
power.  From  this  point  of  view  (knowing  is  the 
taking  in,  realising,  estimating,  retaining,  repro- 
ducing (in  the  sense  of  knowing  again),  relating,  and 
reasoning  about,  all  that  happens  to  the  mind. 

Nothing  has  any  permanently  valuable  effect  upon 
mind  which  is  not  attended  to.  Indeed,  in  the  widest 
meaning  of  attention,  nothing  can  enter  into  the  mind 
at  all  unless  it  is  attended  to.  Attention  in  the  mind 
may  be  compared  with  digestion  in  the  body.  As  in 
digestion  appropriate  material  is  received  into  the 
body,  submitted  to  bodily  activities,  transformed  into 
that  which  can  become  a  part  of  the  body,  and  then 
assimilated,  i.e.,  made  an  actual  part  of  the  body ;  so 
attention  is  the  receiving,  transforming,  and  assimilat- 
ing activity  of  mind.  In  the  case  of  attention,  how- 
ever, this  kind  of  activity  is  not  limited  to  one  definite 
circle  of  work  and  result,  but  the  mind  is  able  to 
attend  to  the  first  results  and  get  further  and  higher 
products  from  them,  and  to  carry  on  this  process. 

When  attention  is  chiefly  given  up  to  the  more 
passive  reception  <jf  presentations,  and  the  activity  is 
mainly  called  forth  by  the  force  of  the  external 
stimulus,  it  is  said  to  be  involuntary ;  and  when  it  is 
actively  engaged  in  seeking  for  and  securing  presenta- 
tions, and  its  activity  is  initiated  by  the  mind  itself, 
it  is  termed  voluntary.  There  is,  however,  always  a 
passive  and   an  active  element   in   attention,   and   it 

E 


66  EDUCATION 

depends  upon  whicli  element  is  predominant  as  to 
whether  we  speak  of  the  attention  as  involunlaiy/  or 
voluntary. 

P re-adjustment  of  Attention. — Attention  is  found  to 
be  far  more  rapid  in  its  workings,  and  far  more  full, 
precise,  detailed,  and  accurate,  when  the  mind  has 
some  idea  of  what  is  the  kind  of  experience  which  it 
will  soon  be  subjected  to.  The  mind,  so  to  say,  gets 
itself  ready  for  the  experience,  and  the  details  of  the 
presentations  are  very  freely  and  fully  received,  and 
very  readily  and  completely  appreciated. 

For  example,  if  a  person  is  in  a  room  .in  which 
another  person,  whom  he  has  met  only  once  before 
and  not  noticed  very  particularly,  is  present,  a  whole 
evening  might  pass  without  the  former  recognising 
the  latter,  even  though  he  sees  him  several  times. 
But  if  he  is  reminded  of  the  previous  meeting,  and 
told  that  the  new  acquaintance  is  present,  recognition 
is  likely  to  take  place.  Should  he  especially  wish  to 
see  him  again,  or  should  he  be  told  that  his  new 
friend  is  standing  in  a  particular  group  of  persons, 
the  recognition  would  probably  be  immediate. 

Similarly,  if,  without  any  suggestion  of  what  is 
coming,  one  is  asked  to  try  to  identify,  say,  some- 
thing that  is  momentarily  flashe^  upon  a  lantern 
screen,  frequent  failure  will  take  place.  But  if  one 
is  told  that  a  letter  of  the  alphabet,  or  some  one  or 
more  of  the  number  figures  from  i  to  30  will  appear, 
then  success  is  more  likely.  And  if  there  be  still 
further  limitation  to,  say,  one  or  other  of  the  first 
twelve  letters  of  the  alphabet,  then  it  will  probably 


MIND  67 

be  more  or  less  easy  to  tell  exactly  what  is  shown  each 
time. 

This  getting  ready  of  mind  to  receive  a  certain  kind 
of  experience  is  termed  the  pre-adjustment  of  atten- 
tion. Not  only  does  the  mind  adapt  itself  in  the  best 
way  for  receiving  what  is  to  come,  but  it  confines  its 
power  of  attending  to  the  particular  matter  in  hand. 
There  is  an  absence  of  any  distraction,  a  concentration 
of  power,  and  the  greatest  possible  readiness  to  receive 
and  appreciate.  The  result  of  this  is  that  the  time 
taken  to  recognise  the  nature  of  a  presentation  is 
sometimes  reduced  to  as  little  as  one-seventh  of  what 
would  be  taken  without  any  pre-adjustment  of  atten- 
tion. In  this  way,  therefore,  knowing  is  extended  and 
made  more  thorough  and  complete. 

Memory. — That  the  fact  of  having  experiences  leads 
to  an  increase  of  knowing  is  due  to  the  elements  of 
continuity  and  coherence  in  mental  life.  Mind  has 
the  native  power  of  being  able  to  bind  together,  retain, 
and  re-use  the  results  of  acts  of  consciousness.  This 
power  to  retain,  which  is  called  memory,  is  not  a 
special  or  separate  power,  but  is  a  general  basis,  like 
attention,  of  mind  and  mental  life,  as  such.  Without 
memory  and  attention,  mind,  as  known  to  us,  could 
not  exist.  They  are  of  the  very  essence  of  mind  as  a 
distinct  entity,  i.e.,  that  which  is  known  to  us  as  a 
something  different  from  all  other  somethings,  and 
having  its  own  proper  constituents,  qualities,  and 
functions. 

Memory,  like  all  the  mental  powers,  has  two  aspects, 
an  active  and  a  passive.     We  cannot  help  remembering, 


68  EDUCATION 

or  holding  in  mind,  things  that  happen  to  ns.  There 
are  some  events  which,  as  we  say,  we  shall  remember 
to  the  day  of  our  death.  By  this  we  mean  that  they 
will  constantly  recur  to  us,  without  our  making  any 
effort  to  bring  this  about,  or  even  in  spite  of  our  trying 
to  prevent  it,  and  we  shall  think  about  Ijhem,  and 
realise  over  and  over  again  much  of  the  pleasure  or 
pain  that  they  gave  us  when  they  actually  happened. 
This  is  more  than  the  mere  holding  in  mind,  which  is 
the  more  purely  passive  side  of  the  matter,  and  is  called 
reproductive  memory,  or  simple  remembering. 

Since,  however,  things  are  held  in  the  mind,  we  can 
use  our  mental  energy  for  the  purpose  of  bringing  them 
into  clear  consciousness  at  any  particular  time.  We 
sometimes  are  asked,  or  set  ourselves,  to  try  and  recall 
what  took  place  at  a  certain  time  and  place,  and  we 
are  usually  able  to  do  this  with  considerable  fulness 
and  accuracy.  This  is  the  more  active, sifle  of  memory, 
and  is  termed  recollection. 

Whatever  is  thus  again  brought  into  clear  conscious- 
ness, either  through  an  involuntary  or  voluntary  activity 
of  memory,  is  known  as  a  re-presentation.  To  this 
power  of  re-presentation  is  due,  primarily,  all  the 
higher  developments  of  reason,  as  we  shall  see  in  our 
later  considerations. 

It  is  probable  that  anything  which  has  once  con- 
sciously entered  the  mind  never  absolutely  and  entirely 
leaves  it,  although  it  may  not  appear  again  unless  some 
very  violent  mental  disturbance  takes  place,  and  we 
may  quite  lose  the  power  of  recalling  it  when  we  wish. 
This  losing  of    the  power  io  recall  an  experience  is 


MIND  69 

known  as  obliviscence.  A  good  example  of  this  is  seen 
in  the  fact  that  Dr.  Livingstone  was  unable  to  ask  for 
water  by  its  English  name,  after  a  long  period  of 
speaking  nothing  but-  African  languages.  The  more 
vivid,  forcible,  interesting,  and  frequent  an  experience 
is,  the  less  likely  is  the  mental  efiFect  to  sink  into  such 
a  state  of  forgetf  ulness.  Repetition  in  due  amount  and 
at  proper  intervals  is  probably  the  most  important 
agent  in  securing  a  full,  accurate,  and  ready  memory. 

The  powers  of  memory  are  at  their  greatest  from 
about  the  tenth  to  the  twentieth  years,  and  during  this 
time  a  really  wonderful  amount  of  work  is  done. 
There  is  a  remarkably  rapid  growth  from  birth  to 
about  the  fourteenth  year,  after  which  there  is  a  very 
gradual  but  steady  decline  until  the  thirty-fifth  year, 
when  there  sets  in  a  much  quicker  falling-off. 

Sub-consciousness. — ^In  connection  with  memory  we 
have  to  deal  with  a  rather  remarkable  fact  in  the 
mental  life.  Probably  most  of  the  stimuli  which  affect 
our  bodies,  through  the  senses,  escape  being  attended 
to,  and  therefore  do  not  enter  into  clear  consciousness 
at  the  time ;  i.e.,  we  are  not  definitely  aware  of  them  at 
the  moment  when  they  are  acting  upon  us.  One  or 
two  every-day  experiences  will  serve  to  illustrate  this. 
We  say  that  a  cat  can  see  in  the  dark,  by  which  we 
mean  that  a  cat's  eyes  are  so  much  more  susceptible  to 
light  than  ours,  that  they  can  see  thiugs  in  a  state  of 
light  in  which  we  are  unable  to  see  them.  Bat  the 
same  light  stimuli  which  are  acting  upon  the  cat's  eyes 
are  aflFecting  our  own,  although  we  cannot  ordinarily 
appreciate  them.     Some  men,  however,  by  long    and 


70  EDUCATION 

careful  practice  have  become  able  to  see  down  wells  or 
up  into  the  skies,  and  can  tell  what  is  there,  when  one 
who  has  not  so  trained  himself  is  unable  to  do  so.  So 
a  deaf  person  learns  to  know,  through  the  eflFect  on  his 
own  face  and  through  putting  his  fingers  on  the  throat 
of  a  speaker,  certain  spoken  sounds.  Again  when  the 
attention  is  absorbed,  we  are,  at  the  time,  unaware  of 
influences  which  would,  under  ordinary  conditions, 
impress  us  very  forcibly,  as  when  a  person  who  is 
reading  a  thrilling  narrative  is  entirely  unaware  that 
some  one  is  speaking  to  him  in  loud  and  earnest  tones. 

Though  some  stimuli  are  thus  unattended  to,  and  do 
not  enter  into  clear  consciousness  at  the  moment,  yet 
some  of  them  do  influence  the  mind,  and  the  effects  of 
such  influence  may  afterwards  appear  in  the  mind  as  a 
re-presentation.  An  experience  like  the  following  may 
occur :  a  person  is  anxious  to  attend  a  certain  concert, 
but  does  not  know  the  exact  day.  Hurrying  along  the 
street  one  day,  and  engaged  in  earnestly  thinking  about 
some  subject  of  study,  he  may  pass  a  shop  window  in 
which  there  is  a  notice  about  the  concert.  At  the  time 
of  passing  the  window  he  is  quite  unaware  of  the 
notice.  But  in  about  a  minute  afterwards  he  stops 
thinking  of  the  subjects  which  occupied  his  thoughts, 
and  then  there  leaps  into  his  mind  the  thought: 
"  Why,  I  saw  a  notice  about  the  concert  in  a  window 
which  I  have  just  passed  !  " 

A  striking  example  of  sub-conscious  mental  activity 
was,  not  long  ago,  reported  in  the  newspapers.  An 
uneducated  charwoman,  a  patient  in  one  of  the  public 
hospitals,  was  found  to  be  repeating  one  of  the  psalms 


MIND  7 1 

in  the  original  Hebrew,  when  she  was  delirious.  Inquiry 
revealed  the  fact  that  she  had  been  employed  to  look  after 
the  room  of  a  Jewish  Rabbi,  and  had  constantly  heard  him 
repeating  this  psalm.  She  could  hardly  have  attended 
to  it  in  any  real  sense,  yet  it  had  become  lodged  in  her 
memory  in  a  very  complete  and  consecutive  way. 

Inflaences  and  their  mental  results  (until  they  appear 
in  clear  consciousness  as  re-presentations)  of  which  we 
are  unaware  at  the  time  when  they  actually  occur,  make 
up  what  is  known  as  sub-consciousness.  Mental  phe- 
nomena of  this  kind  are,  we  may  say,  on  the  margin  of 
consciousness,  for  they  are  neither  quite  in,  nor  quite 
out  of,  the  ordinary  consciousness.  We  may  regard 
every  activity  in  the  universe  which  surrounds  us  as 
exerting  a  sub-conscious  influence  upon  us,  which 
may  force  itself  into  consciousness  in  the  manner  just 
pointed  out,  or  may  enter  into  clear  consciousness 
through  being  attended  to  in  the  ordinary  ways. 

Association. — ^Not  only  is  this  growth,  or  mere  increase 
in  quantity,  provided  for  by  the  original  nature  of  mind 
but  the  development  of  knowing  into  its  higher  forms 
is  also  provided  for  by  the  native  capacity  of  mind. 
Memory  is  not  only  a  power,  but  also  a  system.  Mental 
effects  are  retained  and  reproduced  in  the  mind,  but 
more  than  this,  they  are  combined  in  definite  and  helpful 
ways.  Thus  all  those  elements  in  our  varying  experi- 
ences which  resemble  each  other  in  their  value  and 
meaning  for  mind,  are  grouped  together  by  mind  itself, 
in  such  a  way  that  each  addition  serves  to  bring  out 
more  clearly  and  fully  the  value  and  meaning  of  all 
that  has  gone  before,  whilst  its  own  significance  is  more 


72  EDUCATION 

completely  realised  because  of  what  already  exists  in 
the  mind  of  a  like  nature. 

Every  time  a  child  sees  and  attends  to  the  presenta- 
tion of,  say,  a  horse,  its  previous  impressions  as  to  what 
a  horse  is  like  are  made  more  vivid  and  clear ;  and  the 
next  time  it  has  a  similar  experience  it  will  receive 
more  from  it  because  of  what  has  gone  before.  It  is  in 
this  sense  that  we  speak  of  seeing  more  in  a  picture 
every  time  we  look  at  it,  of  realising  new  beauties  in  a 
sonata  on  each  occasion  of  hearing  it  re-played,  and  of 
finding  more  meaning  in  a  book  at  every  fresh  reading 
of  it.  Such  a  collecting  of  mental  results  into  groups 
we  call  association,  and  the  above  form  of  it  is  known 
as  association  by  similarity. 

But  not  only  are  the  results  of  experiences  associated, 
because  of  their  similarity,  by  an  original  impulse  due 
to  the  nature  of  mind ;  they  are  also  associated  because 
of  their  occurring  in  the  same  act,  or  immediately 
following  acts,  of  consciousness,  or  because  they  are 
recalled  to  mind  and  thought  about  at  the  same  time, 
or  immediately  following  each  other. 

For  example,  if  one  is  always  aroused  in  the  morning 
by  a  rapping  on  the  door,  then  the  idea  of  getting  up 
will  usually  be  accompanied  with  the  idea  of  hearing 
a  rapping  on  a  door.  Indeed,  this  may  go  so  far  that 
one  may  get  to  think  that  he  ought  not  to  get  up, 
and  fail  to  do  so,  until  a  rap  is  heard.  Similarly, 
with  the  successive  actions  of  dressing ;  each  of  these 
calls  up  the  next  so  clearly  and  inevitably,  as  a  rule, 
that  a  person  does  not  stop  to  think  what  is  next, 
but,  as  we  say,  remembers  without  thinking. 


L 


MIND  73 

So  also  with  respect  to  thoughts  which  occur  to- 
gether or  successively,  the  recurrence  of  one  is  likely 
to  recall  the  other.  The  whole  of  the  points  of  an 
argument  that  has  been  studied,  or  of  a  speech  that 
has  been  heard,  can  often  be  recollected  if  we  are 
able  to  recall  one  or  two  of  the  most  important 
and  central  ideaa  This  kind  of  association  is  termed 
association  by  contiguity. 

Attention  and  Aflsooiation. — A  little  reflection  will 
show  that  association  is  very  largely  dependent  upon 
attention,  with  regard  to  there  being  such-and-such 
associations  at  all.  Not  all  like*  or  following  experi- 
ences are  grouped  together,  but  generally  only  those 
which  have  some  special  force  or  interest  both  of 
which  will  cause,  or  be  caused  by,  special  attention. 
The  amount  of  attention  which  the  mind  gives  will 
depend  upon:  its  own  freshness,  fulness  (previous 
knowledge,  which  enables  it  to  attend  effectively)  and 
vigour  at  the  moment :  the  force,  clearness,  and  interest 
of  the  experience:  and  the  general  bodily  freshness, 
vigour,  and  accuracy  of  response — ^if  there  be  sensation 
involved. 

Attention  and  association  are  the  two  most  essential 
features  of  knowing,  as  such,  for  attention  marks  off 
the  points  of  likeness  and  difference  in  every  pre- 
sentation, and  association  so  groups  and  re-groups  such 
points  that  the  highest  possible  mental  value  is 
obtained  from  them.  This  grouping  is  not  only  a 
classification,  but,  by  the  aid  of  thought — the  highest 
form  of  attention — it  is,  in  its  highest  form,  a  con- 
structive arrangement,  for  it  gives  new  products  and 


74  EDUCATION 

powers.  We  may  compare  the  whole  process  to  the 
following :  a  man  (mind)  is  set  down  before  a  heap  oi 
rags  (experiences),  which  he  wishes  to  make  use  of 
(knowing).  He  first  notices  (attention)  that  some  of 
the  rags  are  alike  in  colour,  some  in  material,  and 
some  in  both  (attention  and  association).  He  proceeds 
to  put  them  into  groups  according  to  colour  and 
material  (association).  He  then  thinks  that  they 
may  be  used  to  make  new  material  (higher  atten- 
tion and  association).  He  therefore  reduces  them  to 
their  elements  and  re-makes  them,  by  delicate  ma- 
chinery, into  new  and  useful  forms  (highest  forms  of 
constructive  attention  and  association). 

In  short,  we  may  regard  attention  and  association 
as  two  features  of  knowing.  Between  them  they 
reduce  to  order  and  significance  the  mental  life.  They 
crystallise,  systematise,  and  unify  the  mind,  so  far  as 
knowing  is  concerned.  Attention  is  the  interpreting 
power  of  mind,  for  it  brings  out  the  mental  signifi- 
cance of  experiences.  But  it  would  be  impossible  for 
it  to  do  this  to  every  detail,  or  even  to  every  whole,  of 
experience.  It  is,  therefore,  also  a  selecting  activity, 
choosing  to  exercise  itself  upon  that  which  is  likely  to 
be  most  fruitful  to  the  mental  life.  As  we  have 
already  seen,  it  is  the  adjusting  activity  which  puts 
mind  in  the  best  attitude  for  receiving  and  responding 
to  presentations. 

Finally,  it  is,  in  its  highest  form,  the  relating  agent, 
for  it  finds  out  how  experiences  are  related  to  each 
other  by  discovering  the  points  of  likeness  and  differ- 
ence in    them,  through   comparing   them ;    and    as   a 


I 


MIND  75 

resnlt  of  this,  a  higher  unity  of  meaning  is  formed. 
Thus,  by  giving  careful  attention  to  actions  which  strike 
us  as  being  most  satisfactory  in  their  effects,  both  with 
regard  to  the  doer  and  those  whom  the  actions  affect, 
we  notice  that  they  are  based  upon  motives  which  we 
hold  to  be  of  the  most  worthy  kind,  and  that  they 
involve  a  method  of  dealing  with  persons  and  things 
which  is  equally  admirable.  We  proceed,  therefore, 
to  abstract  such  elements  from  the  persons  and  the 
actions,  and  build  them  up  into  separate  units  which 
we  name  right,  virtue,  equity,  &c.  It  is  the  special 
work  of  attention  to  find  in  the  world  of  experiences, 
which  would  otherwise  be  an  infinite  chaos,  all  the 
units  and  unities  of  meaning  that  it  can.  Only  so 
can  our  mental  life  be  rational.  Such  processes  con- 
stitute the  highest  activity  of  knowing,  viz.,  reasoning. 
Throughout  these  processes  attention  is  accompanied 
and  aided  by  the  two  forms  of  association. 

Of  the  highest  forms  of  knowing  we  shall  speak  in 
more  detail  in  later  chapters. 

Willing. — Willing,  like  knowing  and  feeling,  is 
elemental.  It  may  be  said  to  express  the  activity  of 
mind.  Since  mind  is  a  living  organism,  it  must  do  as 
well  as  be,  and  this  doing,  as  such,  is  the  willing.  No 
living  thing,  nor,  in  fact,  any  kind  of  thing,  can  ever  be 
wholly  passive  or  wholly  active.  There  is  always,  and 
everywhere,  action  and  reaction.  It  is  not  sufficient 
for  the  mind  to  be  surrounded  by  countless  forms  of 
activity.  It  must  take  in  some  of  these  in  a  more  or 
less  sympathetic  and  responsive  manner,  or  the  in- 
fluences might  as  well  not  exist  at  all,  so  far  as  the 


76  EDUCATION 

mind  is  concerned,  for  they  can   never  exist,  in  any 
significant  sense,  for  it. 

Mind  has  native  energy  which  can  be  stimulated, 
but  cannot  be  commanded  without,  so  to  say,  its  own 
consent.  It  is  this  consenting  or  resisting  power  of 
mind  which  is  referred  to  when  we  speak  of  willing. 
Even  a  little  child  can,  and  does — as  a  teacher  too  well 
knows — sometimes  decline  to  receive  the  most  enticing 
and  favourably  conditioned  influences.  This  does  not 
mean  that  the  mind  can  cease  to  be  active,  for  that 
would  be  mental  suicide,  but  that  it  can  be,  if  it  chooses, 
more  or  less  receptive,  and  can  choose  for  itself  what  it 
will  thus  attend  to. 

But  the  native  energy  of  mind  has  higher  duties  than 
these,  for  it  is  able  to  be  predominantly  active,  ie.,  ag- 
gressive and  initiative.  Mind  can  guide  and  control 
its  own  activity,  to  a  greater  or  a  lesser  degree,  accord- 
ing to  the  suggestions  of  the  knowing  and  feeling 
powers.  But  we  can  never  leave  out  of  account  what 
we  call  the  force  of  circumstance — i.e.,  the  fact  of  other 
forms  of  activity — which  must  always  more  or  less  limit 
mind-activity  and  self-control.  This  is  the  essence  of 
our  idea  of  a  rational  being  as  distinguished  from  an 
automaton.  The  latter  can  do,  and  must  do,  only  certain 
things  in  a  certain  way,  under  certain  conditions ;  whilst 
the  former  may  do  one  of  many  things,  in  one  of  many 
ways,  under  given  conditions;  but  there  is  a  limit 
to  these  alternatives,  for  the  reason  mentioned  above, 
and  because  of  the  limits  and  laws  of  mind's  own 
nature. 

We  may  therefore  express  in  a  paraphrase  the  mean- 


i 


MIND  77 

ing  of  the  term  willing  by  saying  that  it  refers  to  the 
general  self -activity  of  mind  which  guides  and  controls, 
to  a  greater  or  lesser  degree,  its  particular  activities. 
Before  inquiring  more  closely  into  what  may  be  said  to 
constitute  this  guiding  and  controlling  self-activity  of 
mind,  it  will  be  helpful  to  consider  the  matter  from  the 
point  of  view  of  its  being  predominantly  passive  or  pre- 
dominantly active  in  the  mental  life. 

Active  and  Passive  Willing. — Attention  is  a  form  of 
willing,  and  when  we  spoke  of  attention  being  some- 
times due  chiefly  to  the  force  and  vividness  of  an  im- 
pression, we  were  really  referring  to  a  case  in  which 
willing  is  predominantly  passive.  When,  on  the  other 
hand,  we  spoke  of  attention  as  selecting,  adjusting,  and 
relating,  we  were  concerned  with  acts  of  consciousness 
in  which  willing  is  predominantly  active.  As  we  then 
pointed  out,  the  selecting,  adjusting,  and  relating  atten- 
tion are  forms  of  knowing  which  largely  depend  upon 
previous  knowings.  It  is  clear,  therefore,  that  the 
active  and  highest  form  of  willing  depends  mainly 
upon  knowing.  Hence  it  must  be  a  later  development, 
since  knowing  is  itself  a  development.  In  this  higher 
form  willing  is  a  late  development,  whilst  in  its  wider 
sense  of  mind's  self-activity  it  is  from  the  very  begin- 
ning of  mind. 

Spontaneous  or  Automatic  Willing. — There  is  an  almost 
entirely  automatic  element  in  every  act  of  willing.  If 
this  were  not  so,  we  could  not  receive  the  influences 
which  act  upon  mind,  because  it  is  necessary  for  us 
to  be  disposed  to  take  them  in  without,  at  the  very 
first,  our  having  a  conscious  desire  to  do   so.      How 


78  EDUCATION 

could  a  little  child  be  actively  eager  to  take  in  an 
impression  of  which  it  has  had  no  previous  experience 
whatever  ?  Of  course  we  are  now  speaking  of  that  con- 
senting of  the  mind  which  is  really  based  upon  knowing 
and  feeling. 

In  one  sense  the  mind  of  a  child  is  overwhelmingly 
disposed  to  receive,  since  its  native  energy  seizes  any 
and  every  chance  of  exercising  itself.  But  this  is  a 
sort  of  working  in  the  dark.  In  receiving  all  kinds  of 
influences  in  such  a  free-and-easy  manner  the  mind  is 
chiefly  passive,  for  it  presents  no  barrier  to  their  en- 
trance, and  simply  responds  in  a  very  vigorous  but 
more  or  less  indefinite  way. 

This  is  also  true  of  an  adult  under  some  circum- 
stances. If  a  person  suddenly  finds  himself  in  new 
surroundings,  he  will  often  try  not  to  give,  at  once,  any 
definite  meaning  to  his  surroundiags,  but  will  simply 
stand  quite  still,  and  allow  them  to  make  whatever 
impression  they  can  upon  him  first,  as  in  the  case  of 
one  who,  having  some  rather  complicated  machinery 
shown  to  him,  says :  "  Wait  a  moment ;  let  me  get  a 
general  impression  of  it  first ; "  or,  in  that  of  a  student 
who  first  reads  quickly  through  a  chapter  to  get  a 
general  impression  of  what  it  is  about  before  seriously 
thinking  about  its  meaning.  So  far  as  such  effects 
depend,  from  the  mental  side,  upon  our  allowing  our- 
selves to  be  acted  upon,  the  willing  is  said  to  be  auto- 
matic, or  spontaneous. 

This  spontaneous  or  automatic  element  is  the  basis 
of  the  higher  forms,  for  here  as  elsewhere  we  cannot 
start  from  nothing :  something  must  happen  to  begin 


MIND  79 

with,  and  from  this  comes  more  and  better.  Just  as 
in  feeling  and  knowing  the  first  occasions  for  such  acti* 
vities  are  found  in  the  bodily  activities,  so  the  first 
exercise  of  will,  in  the  above  sense,  accompanies, 
follows,  and  precedes  muscular  movements.  The 
healthy  baby  is  full  of  bodily  vigour,  and  kicks  and 
vocalises  with  great  frequency  and  force.  Answering 
to  this  there  must  be  those  activities  of  mind  which 
take  account  of  the  sensations  accompanying  them. 
Before  long  the  little  one  learns  to  withdraw  its  body 
from  anything  that  is  too  hot,  or  too  cold ;  and  soon, 
also,  learns  to  gi*asp  and  shake  the  rattle  which  it  likes 
to  hear.  But  the  last  named  is  a  comparatively  rare 
kind  of  activity  when  compared  with  the  never-ceasing 
variety  of  the  more  passive  kind. 

Instinctive  Willing. — Actions  with  a  purpose  which 
is  clearly  known  and  due  to  the  mind  itself  also  have 
their  origin  in  something  which  is  a  good  deal  less  than 
that  which  it  later  becomes.  Man  as  an  organism  has 
a  certain  system  of  needs  which  must  be  provided  for 
from  the  very  commencement  of  life,  or  he  will  die.  It 
is  found  that  the  young  of  mammals  are  from  the  first 
able  to  perform  the  series  of  actions  necessary  for 
obtaining  the  mother's  milk ;  a  young  chicken  can  so 
nicely  adjust  its  actions  as  to  pick  up  its  food  imme- 
diately after  leaving  the  egg ;  birds  provide  themselves 
with  nests  for  the  breeding  season  ;  and  so  on. 

Now  such  actions  as  these  really  involve  a  system  of 
willings,  but  they  are  not  known  to  the  individual 
as  being  connected  with  one  another  and  the  result. 
So  to  say,  it  is  necessary  for  a  conscious  being  to  know 


80  EDUCATION 

how  to  do  some  things  before  he  is  able  to  learn  how  to 
do  them.  He  must  be  able  to  will  right  actions,  in  the 
right  order,  and  at  the  right  time.  We  do  will  in  such 
a  way,  but  we  do  not  know  that  we  are  doing  so. 
Such  willing  is  named  instinctive.  It  is  most  common 
in  eariy  life,  but  is  always  present  in  a  greater  or  lesser 
degree  throughout  life. 

There  is  still  another  feature  in  the  progress  of  will- 
ing from  the  more  purely  passive  and  automatic  to  the 
predominantly  active  and  selective.  Human  beings  are 
not  only  very  receptive  with  regard  to  the  influences 
which  objects  exert  upon  them,  but  they  also  respond 
very  readily  to  the  impressions  which  the  actions  of 
individuals  make  on  them.  The  response  is  often  so 
full  and  forcible  that  it  results  in  a  reproducing  of  the 
actions  in  their  own  persons.  A  little  child  who  is 
listening  to  a  story,  told  with  dramatic  skill,  will  frown 
when  the  narrator  frowns,  smile  when  he  smiles,  and 
even  start  backwards  if  he  does  so.  In  like  manner, 
highly  sensitive  adults  will  imitate  the  actions  of  others. 

It  is  because  of  this  tendency  to  carry  out  the 
suggestions  which  actions  convey  to  the  mind  that  we 
find  that  children  copy  so  closely  the  peculiarities  of 
their  parents  with  respect  to  speech,  facial  expression, 
gait,  general  body  pose,  &c.  We  may  call  this  imita- 
tive willing.  At  first  it  is  mainly  automatic,  but  later 
it  is  entirely  due  to  self-activity.  It  is  the  basis  of 
much,  if  not  all,  of  our  highest  constructive  thought, 
«.^.,  compare  how  Brunei  got  his  idea  for  the  Thames 
Tunnel  from  the  boring  of  an  insect. 

Having  examined  the  more  passive  elements  in  will- 


MIND  81 

ing,  we  shall  be  able  better  to  understand  what  is 
involved  in  the  higher  forms,  where  self-activity  is  the 
chief  factor.  But  let  us  always  bear  in  mind  what  is 
alivaya  true,  and  very  important,  viz.,  that  there  is 
always  a  more  or  less  developed  germ  of  the  higher 
forms  in  the  lower,  and  that  the  lower  are  the  basis  of, 
and,  in  however  slight  a  degree,  accompany  the  higher. 
Elements  of  Willing. — ^Willing,  in  its  higher  form, 
and  in  the  sense  in  which  we  always  think  of  it  as  be- 
longing to  a  rational  being,  is  made  up  of  several 
factors,  each  of  which  depends  upon  the  more  highly 
developed  powers  of  mind.  Let  us  try  to  analyse  an 
ordinarily  simple  case  of  willing.  What  is  involved  in 
a  person's  willing  to  learn  swimming  ?  The  first  thing 
we  should  inquire  about,  with  regard  to  it,  would  be 
the.  reason  for  such  willing.  We  should  take  it  for 
granted  that  there  was  something  which  caused  the 
person  so  to  will,  that  some  experience  had  happened 
to  him,  or  he  had  heard  of  some  other  person's  experi- 
ence, either  in  the  way  of  harm  or  advantage,  which  led 
him  to  judge  that  it  would  be  well  to  learn.  This  we 
call  the  motive  for  the  willing.  As  we  have  already 
seen — in  the  discussion  of  feeling — a  most  common  and 
powerful  motive  is  feeling.  The  fact  that  we  know 
that  a  feeling  is  likely  to  do  us  good  or  harm  causes  us 
to  consider  how  we  can  best  obtain  the  largest  amount 
of  good,  or  the  least  extent  of  harm.  Also,  through 
the  association  of  one  feeling  with  others,  an  experience 
may  lead  us  to  think  of  a  series  of  other  feelings, 
desirable  or  undesirable,  which  we  may  enjoy  or  escape 
by  a  certain  course  of  action. 

F 


82  EDUCATION 

Because  particular  feelings  are  so  related  to  the 
general  present  and  future  well-being,  or  ill-being,  of 
the  individual  that  they  command  our  special  attention, 
we  say  that  they  have  interest  from  this  point  of  view. 
All  feelings,  as  such,  have  a  direct  interest  for  us  in 
that  they  are  desirable  or  undesirable,  and  they  may 
have  a  remote  and  complex  interest  for  us,  inasmuch  as 
they  have  more  or  less  important  bearings  on  our  future 
conditions,  plans,  hopes,  &c.  This  element  of  interest 
in  our  feelings  is,  therefore,  a  motive  for  willing,  in 
every  case. 

Interest  may  be  called  the  initiating  element  in 
willing.  If  the  influences  which  act  upon  us  do  not 
definitely  affect  us  through  arousing  in  us  thoughts  and 
judgments  about  the  definite  feelings  of  pleasure  or 
pain  which  they  involve,  or  through  suggesting  the 
likelihood  of  such,  then  we  say  that  they  have  no  in- 
terest for  us,  or  that  they  do  not  appeal  to  us.  In  such 
cases  there  will  be  no  motive  for  willing.  But,  when- 
ever influences  affect  us  so  that  there  is  a  strong,  and 
practically  irresistible,  impulse  to  attend  more  or  less 
rigorously,  then  we  say  that  they  have  interest  for  us. 

Interests  are  either  original  or  acquired.  The  activi- 
ties which  are  necessary  to  the  mental  and  physical  life 
have  very  great  interest  for  us,  inasmuch  as  any  failure 
in  them  generally  brings  acute  pain,  whilst  their  proper 
performance  insures  a  very  large  amount  of  pleasure. 
Thus  thinking,  knowing,  feeling,  &c,  eating,  drinking, 
working,  &c.,  always  have  interest  for  us.  And  we 
also  find  that  things  connected  with  the  forms  and 
modesi  of  life  and  thought  to  which  we  have  become 


MIND  83 

used  through  frequent  and  continued  experiences,  have 
special  interest  for  ns.  Just  as  a  healthy  body  insists 
upon  more  or  less  exercise,  which  brings  about  the  need 
and  longing  for  nourishment,  so  the  mind  demands 
exercise,  for  there  is  a  native  curiosity  or  desire  to  know, 
which  can  only  be  satisfied  by  some  form  of  knowledge. 

The  expectation  of  pleasure  or  pain,  the  desire  to 
bring  about  some  mental  or  bodily  condition  to  agree 
with  our  ideals,  the  tendency  to  continue  customary 
actions,  the  attractiveness  of  novelty,  &c.,  all  serve  to 
arouse  and  sustain  interest,  whilst  too  much  sameness 
(repetition  without  variation),  exhaustive  knowledge  of  a 
thing  or  a  phase  of  it,  defect  of  knowledge,  slowness  of 
progress,  &c.,  all  tend  to  decrease  or  destroy  the  interest 
in  experiences. 

In  a  very  broad  sense  it  is  true  that  all  motives  are 
feelings,  since  we  cannot  have  any  form  of  mental  ex- 
perience without  its  particular  kind  of  feeling,  which 
gives  it  its  special  value  for  us,  and  which  largely  de- 
cides the  nature  of  the  willing.  But,  in  that  sometimes 
we  have  mental  states  in  which  the  purely  intellectual 
is  very  predominant  and  feeling  quite  subordinate,  and 
that  these  mental  states  lead,  as  motives,  to  some  form 
of  willing,  it  is  as  well  to  regard  knowing  as  also  acting 
as  an  impulse. 

In  most,  if  not  all,  cases  there  would  be  some  amount 
of  thought  before  any  judgment  on  a  particular  matter 
would  be  reached.  A  person  would  probably  discuss 
whether,  say,  a  particular  advantage  would  repay  the 
effort  and  time  taken  to  obtain  it,  or  whether  he  could  not 
better  occupy  his  leisure,  and  so  on.     There  would  be  a 


84  EDUCATION 

sort  of  general  mental  debate  about  the  subject.  This 
is  known  as  deliberation. 

The  end  of  this  deliberation  would  be  that  some  one 
or  other  of  the  various  alternatives  which  presented 
themselves  to  the  mind,  would  be  taken  as  the  best. 
This  is  choice.  Choice  wUl  be  according  to  knowing, 
for  one  would  certainly  choose  that  which,  in  one  way 
or  another,  he  thought,  from  his  knowledge  of  what  is 
involved,  would  be  likely  to  be  for  the  best. 

As  a  result  of  the  above,  the  mind  takes  up  a  certain 
general  attitude  toward  a  matter.  We  may  describe 
this  by  saying  that  there  is  a  wanting  of,  or  wishing  for, 
something.  This  is  desire.  But  this  does  not  include 
the  real  force  that  there  is  in  true  willing.  One  might 
very  much  desire  to  be  able  to  swim  across  the  Atlantic, 
but  would  not  be  likely  to  think  of  willing  it,  because 
it  would  be  held  to  be  impossible.  Again,  a  person 
dying  of  thirst  in  the  Sahara  would  desire  above  all 
things  to  have  a  drink  of  water,  but,  if  he  were  con- 
vinced that  there  was  none  within  thirty  miles  of  him, 
he  would  not  wUl  to  get  some. 

The  next  point,  therefore,  is  to  feel  convinced  that  a 
certain  course  of  action  will  accomplish  what  is  desired. 
Then  the  mind  is,  so  to  say,  seized  on,  and  possessed 
by,  the  idea  of  carrying  out  such  a  series  of  actions, 
and  such  is  the  power  and  force  of  a  true  willing  that 
the  body  is  so  influenced  by  it  as  to  perform  the  appro- 
priate physical  actions.  Of  course  we  may  will  to  bring 
about  a  purely  mental  result,  in  which  case  further 
mental  actions  will  follow.  This  part  of  willing  we 
call   impulse,  which  is  the  mentally  demanding  and 


MIND  85 

striviDg  for  that  which  is  desired,  and  includes  the 
representation  of  a  motor  series,  i.e.,  the  bringing  before 
the  mind  the  idea  of  those  actions  which,  we  judge,  will 
accomplish  what  we  desire. 

Since  we  cannot  usually  carry  out  the  actions  in- 
volved in  a  willing  in  a  very  short  time,  it  is  necessary 
that  the  mind  should  maintain  its  conditions,  or  renew 
it  at  intervals,  for  some  time.  The  doing  of  this  con- 
stitutes resolution. 

Habit — ^A  very  important  and  valuable  feature  in 
willing  is  that,  after  a  sufficient  number  of  repetitions 
of  a  similar  kind  of  willing,  it  at  last  becomes  automatic. 
We  have  numerous  instances  of  this  in  our  everyday 
life.  Consider,  for  example,  how  slowly,  and  with  what 
difficulty,  one  at  first  learns  to  will  the  proper  position, 
force,  direction,  &c.,  of  a  motion  in  learning  to  play 
lawn-tennis,  but  how,  after  careful  judgment  and  much 
practice,  all  these  things  are  done  immediately  at  the 
mere  suggestion  given  by  the  position  of  a  very  rapidly 
moving  ball.  Those  of  the  higher  kinds  of  willing 
which  have  become  automatic  form  what  we  call  habit. 
We  must  carefully  distinguish  this  from  the  spon- 
taneous, or  automatic,  willing,  which  is  from  the 
beginning  of  the  mental  life.  Spontaneous  willing  is 
primary,  or  original,  automatic  willing ;  whilst  habit  is 
secondary,  or  derived,  automatic  willing. 

Habit  is  an  economising  agency  in  mind.  When  a 
series  of  willings,  and  the  actions  which  accompany 
them,  have  become  habitual,  then  the  mental  energy 
which  would  otherwise  have  been  occupied  in  giving 
tlie  necessary  attention,  judgment,  &c.,  to  the  matter  is 


86  EDUCATION 

set  free  for  elaborating  and  perfecting  the  details  of 
the  whole,  or  for  occupying  itself  with  something  else. 
Thus,  further  and  higher  progress  is  made  easier  and 
more  rapid. 

Both  the  lowest  and  the  higher  forms  of  willing  are 
thus  automatic.  The  former  is  necessary  to  existence 
and  the  latter  to  a  high  development.  The  latter  is  the 
result  of  much  thought  and  experience,  but  the  former 
precedes,  though  it  also  continues  to  accompany,  the 
higher  mental  life. 

Character  and  Individuality. — As  more  and  more 
habits  are  formed  and  become  permanently  established, 
the  whole  of  the  mental  life,  and  therefore  the  usual 
modes  of  thought  and  action,  become  coloured  by  them. 
Thus  the  tradesman  is  inclined  to  regard  everything 
from  the  profit-and-loss  point  of  view ;  the  sailor  ac- 
quires an  almost  irresistible  tendency  to  be  continually 
going  from  one  part  of  the  world  to  another ;  the  poli- 
tician thinks  of  matters  as  occasions  for  speeches  or 
acts  of  parliament;  and  so  on.  Again,  we  speak  of 
persons  as  resolute,  fickle,  moody,  lively,  musical,  auto- 
cratic, &c.  This  tendency  always  to  act  with  a  certain 
kind  of  bias  we  call  disposition. 

The  total  effect  of  the  various  habits  which  a  person 
has  formed,  and  of  his  original  dispositions  and  powers 
— i.e.,  the  sum  of  his  fixed  qualities — makes  up  his  cha- 
racter. Character,  therefore,  is  the  name  for  that 
general  consistency  of  will  and  action  which  arises 
from  the  formation  of  habits,  and  which  gives  to  a 
person  those  special  differences  of  mind  and  body 
which  mark  him  off  from  all  others. 


MIND  87 

Now,  character  expresses  the  individaality  of  a  man, 
and  therefore  all  that  is  of  the  highest  valae  in  him 
as  a  rational  being.  It  is,  as  we  have  seen,  the  ont- 
come  of  the  higher  willing,  which  can  only  come  from 
the  self-activity  of  the  individual  mind.  That  only  is 
counted  as  belonging  to  the  individuality  of  a  man 
which  comes  from  his  own  judgment  and  feeling. 
Thus  we  say  of  a  man  who  merely  copies  the  habits  of 
another,  or  is  always  content  to  do  what  some  other 
person  suggests  or  commands,  that  he  has  no  individu- 
ality, no  character,  no  will  of  his  own.  Only  when  the 
mind  has  the  power  of  acting  for  itself  in  judging 
about  the  experiences  which  it  has,  and  in  willing  for 
itself  according  te  these  judgments,  can  it  be  considered 
to  have  reached  the  higher  form  of  willing,  and  to  have 
attained  to  that  level  of  independence  of  mental  activity 
which  is  proper  to  the  human  being. 

The  Hormal. — All  pure  science  is  really  ideal,  for  it 
always  assumes  normal  beings  and  conditions.  In 
education  we  understand  a  normal  being  to  be  one  who 
has  all  the  mental  and  bodily  powers  in  a  thoroughly 
sound  and  satisfactory  form.  By  normal  conditions  we 
mean  such  as  are  exactly  suitable  in  all  respects.  We 
never  actually  meet  with  such  perfection,  but  average 
persons  and  conditions  approach  more  or  less  closely 
to  it. 

The  idea  is  got  by  idealising  what  we  know  of  the 
real.  This  is  then  used  as  a  standard  of  judgment,  and 
is  as  necessary  as  helpful.  It  is  only  through  the  ideal 
that  we  can  fully  understand  the  real. 


CHAPTER  III 

GENERAL   PRINCIPLES   OF   EDUCATION 

Having  passed  in  review  some  of  the  most  important 
truths  concerning  mind  and  the  mental  life,  we  must 
now  try  to  set  forth  what  are  the  kinds  of  principles 
and  conditions  the  observance  of  which  will  be  most 
likely  to  bring  about,  most  completely  and  perfectly, 
the  greatest  and  best  development  of  the  mental  powers 
and  activities.  Not  only  must  we  know  what  are 
the  kinds  of  principles  and  conditions  which  will  do 
this,  but  we  must  obtain  as  complete  a  knowledge  of 
their  nature  as  we  can.  We  are  not  now  concerned 
with  the  ways  in  which  we  should  apply  such  things 
so  as  to  bring  about  the  development  most  success- 
fully, these  belonging  to  the  study  of  the  methods  of 
education,  but  only  with  the  nature  and  kinds  of 
that  which  we  should  apply.  Knowledge  for  knowl- 
edge's sake  is  what  we  now  seek.  The  question  of 
how  we  ought  to  use  such  knowledge  for  practical 
purposes  is  an  entirely  distinct  matter.  We  are 
still  in  the  region  of  pure  science,  or  of  organised 
knowledge,  as  knowledge. 

From  what  we  know  of  the  nature  of  mind,  and  of 
the  influences  which  act  upon  it,   and  also  from  the 


GENERAL  PRINCIPLES  89 

teachings  of  experience,  we  find  out  what  are  the  best 
influences  and  conditions  for  mental  development  To 
find  out  the  nature  of  mind  is,  to  a  large  extent,  to  find 
out  what  is  best  suited  to  its  well-being,  just  as 
to  know  the  nature  of  a  plant  is  to  understand  what  it 
takes  into  its  system,  how  it  takes  it,  by  what  means 
and  in  what  ways  it  uses  it,  and  what  kinds  and  con- 
ditions of  things  are  best  for  it. 

Orowth  and  Development  —  Before  dealing  in  detail 
with  the  means  of  securing  development,  we  must  dis- 
tinguish clearly  between  development  and  growth.  By 
growth  we  mean  mere  increase  of  size,  or  extent,  or 
volume  and  strength  of  the  organism;  whilst  by  de- 
velopment is  to  be  understood  an  increase  in  the  ease, 
quickness,  accuracy,  and  completeness  of  the  organic 
activities,  and  an  increased  ability  to  do  more  difficult, 
more  profound,  and  more  complex  actions.  Both  the 
mind  and  the  body  of  an  idiot  increase  in  extent  and 
power,  but  they  do  very  little  in  the  way  of  taking  on 
new  and  higher  forms  of  activities.  There  is  a  good 
deal  of  growth,  but  very  little  development.  Growth 
involves  very  little  more  than  the  increase  of  strength 
which  ordinarily  accompanies  the  increase  of  size, 
but  development  includes  the  increase  of  skill  which 
usually  comes  with  the  increase  of  strength. 

The  Principle  of  Stimulation.  —  Inasmuch  as  mind  is 
a  living  organism,  its  very  being  depends  upon,  and  is 
expressed  by,  its  activity.  Now  this  activity  not  only 
requires  something  to  act  upon,  but  it  must  be  acted 
upon  by  something.  Hence  there  must  be  stimulation 
as  a  means  to  and  condition  of  mental  development. 


90  EDUCATION 

But  too  much  or  too  strong  stimulation  would  be 
destructive,  and  too  little  or  too  weak  would  tend  to 
mere  growth.  There  must,  therefore,  if  possible,  be  a 
properly  proportioned  amount  and  force  of  stimula- 
tion. And  not  only  must  there  be  such  an  appropriate 
quality  and  intensity  of  stimulus,  but  these  must  vary 
with  the  gradually  increasing  power  of  mind. 

These  points  are  so  fully  illustrated  by  our  ordinary 
experience,  that  it  will  not  be  necessary  to  do  more 
than  refer  to  the  usual  mental  work  of  childhood, 
youth,  and  manhood,  the  evils  of  unsuitable  work,  and 
the  doing  too  much  or  too  little,  as  showing  their 
importance. 

The  kinds  of  stimuli  which  must  be  used  will,  of 
course,  be  all  those  which  influence  any  part  of  the 
mental  life.  Of  these  we  have  already  said  something, 
and  shall  have  more  to  say  in  our  later  discussions. 
Broadly  speaking,  they  are  the  sense  activities,  and  the 
mental  activities  themselves. 

As  we  have  previously  remarked,  nature  does  very 
little,  if  anything,  in  the  way  of  carefully  providing 
for  the  needs  of  each  individual  in  such  a  way, as  to 
procure  its  most  perfect  development.  Neither  could 
the  very  young,  inexperienced,  and  immature  individual 
provide  for  its  own  needs  to  the  greatest  advantage, 
even  if  it  had  the  necessary  knowledge.  Stimulation 
there  would  undoubtedly  be,  but  it  would  more  often 
destroy  by  its  excess,  or  defect,  than  preserve  and 
perfect  by  its  special  fitness.  Hence  the  need  of  the 
erliicatoT  who  shall  influence  the  influences  so  as  to 
further,  to  the  greatest  possible  extent,  the  well-being 


GENERAL  PRINCIPLES  91 

of  the  person  concerned.  The  educator  is,  therefore,  an 
indirect  stimulus  to  proper  mental  development,  through 
his  regulating  influence  upon  the  direct  stimuli.  He 
does  not  supplant  natural  influences,  but  supplements 
them,  and  makes  them  most  effective  by  guiding  and 
controlling  them. 

Another  point  which  needs  very  careful  considera- 
tion is,  how  long  the  mind  can  go  on  working  con- 
secutively, so  as  to  do  its  best  work  during  such  time ; 
and  thus,  in  the  long  run,  do  the  greatest  total  amount 
of  its  best  work.  Too  little  or  too  much  energy  in 
mental  work,  if  continued  too  long  or  not  long  enough, 
is  generally  wasteful,  and  likely  to  be  harmful.  Just 
as  in  the  industrial  world  it  is  being  shown  that  more 
and  better  work  is,  as  a  rule,  done  by  those  artisans 
who  work  eight  hours  a  day,  than  by  those  who  work 
twelve,  fourteen,  or  more  hours  a  day  j  so  we  find  that 
thinkers  who  work  too  many  hours  a  day  accomplish 
neither  so  much  or  so  satisfactory  work  as  those  who 
spend  less  time  at  their  tasks.  Stimulation  must, 
therefore,  be  regulated  accordingly. 

There  is  in  mental  work  what  the  political  econo- 
mist calls  the  law  of  increasing  returns,  and  the  law 
of  diminishing  returns.  The  more  we  increase  the 
mental  energy,  up  to  the  point  of  its  greatest  work- 
ing power,  the  greater  and  better  will  be  the  results 
which  are  obtained.  The  mind  can  go  on  working 
at  such  a  rate  for  a  certain  length  of  time  only.  So 
far,  we  have  the  law  of  increasing  returns,  in  answer 
to  the  supplying  of  increasing  stimulation,  up  to  what 
we  may  call  the  law  of  continued  greatest  returns, 


92  EDUCATION 

which  depends  upon  the  maintaining  of  the  proper 
stimulus. 

After  this  there  comes  the  falling-oflF.  Although 
the  same  amount  of  stimulus  is  applied,  the  results 
continue  to  decrease.  This  is  because  mind  is  like 
other  living  organisms  in  requiring  time  to  replace  the 
loss  of  energy  which  takes  place  in  its  ordinary  work- 
ing. As  in  all  organisms,  so  in  mind,  there  is  a 
rhythmic  rise  and  fall  of  energy,  under  ordinary  con- 
ditions. Therefore  as  the  supply  of  mental  energy  is 
gradually  exhausted,  no  amount  of  stimulation  can 
cause  the  mind  to  maintain  its  previous  efficiency. 
A  very  intense  stimulation  may  cause  spasmodic  bursts 
of  energy,  but  this  will  only  the  more  quickly  and 
severely  exhaust  the  mind.  This  is  the  law  of  diminish- 
ing returns.  At  first  the  decline  is  very  slight  and 
slow,  but  after  a  time  it  becomes  very  considerable 
and  rapid,  and  if  allowed  to  go  on,  becomes  destructive 
to  the  extent  of  causing  death.  It  is  important  to 
observe  that,  after  a  certain  amount  of  exhaustion,  the 
mind  seems  to  lose  the  power  of  easily  recuperating 
itself,  and  there  arises  a  state  of  general  mental  de- 
bility, which  is  accompanied  by  a  feeling  of  lassitude 
and  depression,  and  which  may  develop  into  something 
more  serious. 

A  good  example  of  these  laws  is  seen  in  agriculture, 
in  connection  with  which  they  were  first  expounded. 
The  soil  is  always  being  acted  upon  by  all  kinds  of 
chemical,  physical,  and  other  forms  of  activities,  and 
cannot  but  produce  something  or  other.  But  if  we 
want  the   most   and  best  products  from  it,  we  must 


GENERAL  PRINCIPLES  93 

cnltiyate  it,  i.e.,  snpplemeDt,  guide,  and  control  the 
forces  and  influences  which  act  upon  it.  Cultivation  has, 
however,  its  limits,  because  the  productiveness  of  the 
soil  has  its  bounds,  and  depends  upon  conditions  which 
the  proper  amount  of  cultivation  alone  can  make  most 
effective,  but  as  to  which  too  much  help  becomes  a 
hindrance.  Thus  the  more  we  stimulate  the  soil  by 
draining,  digging,  ploughing,  manuring,  weeding,  &c., 
up  to  a  certain  point,  the  larger  and  better  are  the 
crops.  This  greatest  productiveness  could  not,  how- 
ever, go  on  indefinitely.  Even  though  we  had  eternal 
summer,  there  could  not  be  crop  immediately  succeed- 
ing crop,  and  all  of  the  best.  The  land  must  lie  fallow 
occasionally,  as  well  as  have  change  in  the  crops  it  pro- 
duces. Thus  the  land  illustrates  the  laws  of  increasing 
returns  and  continued  greatest  returns. 

The  soil  also  shows  how  the  law  of  diminishing 
returns  applies.  If  crops  were  made  immediately  to 
succeed  each  other  for  an  indefinite  time,  they  would, 
gradually  at  first  and  more  rapidly  later,  decrease  in 
quantity  and  quality.  Too  much  draining  makes  the 
land  too  dry ;  too  much  digging  or  ploughing  would 
prevent  the  proper  atmospheric  influences  working 
successfully,  or  turn  up  the  worst  part  of  the  soil ;  too 
much  manuring  would  cause  a  too  rapid  growth  or 
prevent  it  altogether,  &c. ;  and  thus  each  and  all  would 
diminish  the  value  of  the  final  results. 

There  appears  to  have  been  no  systematic  attempt 
to  work  out  the  quantitative  side  of  these  laws  with 
regard  to  mental  work.  That  is,  we  have  few  reliable 
statistics,  gained  by  scientific  observation  and  experi- 


94  EDUCATION 

ment,  which  show  what  may  be  regarded  as  the 
average  amount  of  mental  work,  at  as  nearly  as 
possible  the  highest  rate  of  energy,  which  the  child, 
the  youth,  and  the  adult,  can  perform,  so  ad  to  get 
the  best  possible  results.  Nor  are  there  any  authori- 
tative opinions  as  to  what  amount  constitutes  harmful 
overworking,  or  underworking,  of  the  mind.  It  is  a 
matter  for  serious  regret  and  reproach,  that  the 
highest  and  most  valuable  form  of  human  energy 
has  not  received  the  attention  which  has  long  ago  been 
given  to  mechanical  and  animal  activity.  The  import- 
ance of  such  knowledge  in  guiding  our  efforts  to  develop 
the  mind  to  the  greatest  advantage  is  obvious. 

In  all  probability  school  children  are  still  being 
very  much  overworked  with  regard  to  the  mind-effort 
required  from  them  during  the  daily  school  hours. 
Much  more  play  and  manual  recreation,  and  less  con- 
tinuous mental  work,  would  be  likely  to  give  con- 
siderably better  mental  results.  Mr.  Edwin  Chad  wick, 
who  has  given  special  attention  to  the  subject,  holds 
that  children  from  seven  to  eight  years  of  age  should 
not  work  more  than  from  two  and  a  half  to  three  hours 
a  day ;  those  from  eight  to  ten  years  old,  from  three 
to  three  and  a  half  hours ;  from  ten  to  twelve,  about 
four  hours;  from  twelve  to  fifteen,  between  five  and 
six  hours;  and  from  fifteen  to  eighteen,  never  more 
than  eight  hours,  allowing  intervals  for  recreation 
out  of  these  times.  He  maintains  that  children  who 
only  attend  as  "  half-timers  "  make  as  good  progress 
as  those  who  attend  full  time,  in  elementary  schools. 

The  Principle  of  Nourishment. — That    which    most 


GENERAL   PBINCXPLES  95 

fitimnlates  and  supports  activity  in  an  organism  is 
nourishment.  From  one  point  of  view,  we  may  look 
upon  all  organic  activity  as  being,  for  the  most  part, 
the  expression  of  the  need  for,  and  the  using  of, 
nourishment.  That  which  lives  is  constantly  seeking 
and  assimilating  food.  This  kind  of  action  is  always 
going  on,  but  the  energy  and  power  thus  obtained  are 
used  for  higher  purposes  than  the  mere  continuation  of 
the  processes  involved.  A  plant,  for  example,  develops 
graces  of  form  and  colour  which,  so  far  as  is  known,  have 
no  direct  bearing  on  their  preservation  or  reproduction ; 
and  a  man,  in  all  points  in  which  he  is  more  and 
better  than  an  intelligent  animal,  has  gone  beyond 
the  bare  requirements  of  providing  only  for  the  con- 
tinuation of  life.  In  considering  what  is  required 
in  the  way  of  nourishment,  we  must,  therefore,  bear 
in  mind  the  highest  forms  of  mental  life  which  are 
known  to  us. 

The  proper  nourishment  for  the  mind  is  such  in- 
fluences as  will  occasion  and  promote  the  best  con- 
ditions of  feeling,  knowing,  and  willing.  As  we  have 
already  pointed  out,  these  ends  will  be  best  secured 
by  those  influences  which  give  the  highest  forms  of 
knowledge. 

It  is  clear  that  in  bringing  influences  to  bear  upon 
the  mind  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  the  most 
desirable  states  ,of  feeling,  we  must,  as  a  rule,  take 
the  bodily  conditions  into  account  very  largely.  For 
the  present,  however,  we  will  take  all  the  details  of 
the  bodily  activities  for  granted,  and  only  consider 
the  mental  element  which  accompanies  them.     It  is,  of 


96  EDUCATION 

course,  desirable  ordinarily  to  have  neither  an  exces- 
sive nor  a  defective  amount  of  feeling.  But  this  must 
not  be  allowed  to  become  a  monotonous  uniformity. 
And  it  is  not  likely  to  be  so  even  if  we  try  our 
hardest  to  make  it,  for  the  conditions  by  which  we  are 
surrounded  change  too  frequently,  and  with  too  great 
variety  of  quantity-  and  quality,  to  allow  of  it.  We 
need  not,  therefore,  except  as  to  the  artificial  con- 
ditions which  we  ourselves  set  up,  trouble  ourselves 
about  preventing  sameness,  but  rather  take  steps  to 
regulate  the  variety. 

This  consideration  may  be  said  to  demand  and 
justify  the  schoolroom  and  the  study,  with  their  limi- 
tations and  rules.  In  the  open  air  we  are  afiected  by 
too  many  and  often  too  forcible  influences.  Strong 
and  very  varied  feelings  very  rapidly  succeed  each 
other,  so  that  their  value,  as  feelings,  is  not  fully 
appreciated,  and  there  is  little  of  connected  and 
systematic  relating  of  them  to  each  other  and  the 
rest  of  the  mental  life.  It  is  as  though  one  should 
try  to  get  the  greatest  amount  of  the  pleasures  of 
taste  from  wines  by  sipping  as  many  different  kinds 
as  possible  in  a  given  time.  Epicures  have  learnt 
that  the  rather  slow  and  continued  sipping  of  one 
kind  at  a  time  gives  the  greatest  pleasure,  through  a 
kind  of  accumulation  of  effect. 

So  in  the  school  the  conditions  which  arouse 
feelings  are  limited,  connected,  and  controlled.  Both 
intense  excitement  and  apathy  are  regarded  as  evils, 
and  guarded  against  But  quiet  and  fervour  are  both 
used  as  occasional  helps. 


GENERAL   PRINCIPLES  97 

Feelings  thus  regulated  may  be  regarded  as  being 
the  most  assimilative,  and,  therefore,  the  most  nutri- 
tive. We  can  hardly  regard  any  feeling  as  being 
wholly  non-assimilative,  for  its  very  existence  shows 
that  it  has  entered  into  mind.  Still,  some  feelings 
cause  a  state  of  mental  conflict,  and,  so  far,  may  be 
classed  as  non-assimilative. 

The  Principle  of  Pleasure. — As  has  been  pointed  out, 
feelings  which  are  in  harmony  with  the  general  mental 
condition  (if  normal)  produce  a  state  of  pleasure. 
We  may  conclude,  therefore,  that  pleasure  is,  as  a 
rule,  most  helpful  to  the  good  development  of  mind, 
and  that  pain,  as  a  rule,  is  a  barrier  and  hindrance. 
So  that  it  is  necessary  for  us  to  give  mental  nourish- 
ment in  such  a  way  that  it  shall  cause  as  much 
pleasure  and  as  little  pain  as  possible. 

It  should  be  noticed  that  here  we  are  dealing  with 
what  applies  to  the  nourishment  itself,  and  not  to  the 
means  which  it  may  be  necessary  to  employ  in  order 
to  get  the  individual  to  receive  it.  The  latter  subject, 
which  involves  the  question  of  rewards  and  punish- 
ments, we  shall  deal  with  later  on. 

At  the  same  time,  we  must  recognise  that  sometimes 
it  will  happen  that  the  mental  food  which  is,  in  the 
long  run,  the  best  for  us  is  not  always  of  a  very 
attractive  or  even  unobjectionable  kind.  Just  as  in 
the  bodily  food  we  now  and  again  have  to  include 
medicinal  supplements,  correctives,  &c.,  which  are  by 
no  means  pleasant,  so  also  mental  experiences  have  at 
times  to  be  profitable  rather  than  pleasurable.  But 
such  inevitable  necessities  are  frequent  enough,  and 


98  EDUCATION 

the  ordinary  difficulties,  dangers,  and  drawbacks 
attending  pleasurable  experiences  are  real  enough,  to 
render  it  unnecessary  that  we  should  try  to  make 
mental  nourishment  difficult  or  distasteful  to  the 
receiver,  simply  for  the  sake  of  trying  to  avoid  having 
things  too  easy  for  him.  The  endeavour  to  get  the 
highest  and  best  progress  and  development  at  a 
reasonably  rapid  rate,  can  never  allow  the  individual 
to  have  a  too  easy  or  too  pleasurable  time. 

If  we  desire,  and  strive  for,  pleasure  for  its  own  sake, 
either  in  the  form  of  excessive  indulgence  in  those 
feelings  which  we  most  enjoy,  or  by  trying  to  avoid 
all  the  mental  effi)rts  we  can  (intellectual  sloth) — a 
state  of  mental  over-feeding,  or  under-exercising — we 
shall  have  too  much  pleasure,  and  shall  be  mentally 
degraded  thereby.  But  this  is  fatal  to  progress  and 
development  of  the  best  kind.  So  if  we  gain  develop- 
ment during  steady  persistence — either  willingly  or 
unwillingly — in  receiving  more  painful  than  pleasurable 
feelings,  it  will  result  in  a  one-sided,  limited,  and  often 
mischievous  mental  character. 

It  is  important  to  recognise  that  we  can  bring  about 
an  almost  infinite  variety  of  feelings  in  an  individual, 
because  we  can  affect  the  body  in  such  ways  that  con- 
sciousness can  hardly  fail  to  take  account  of  them,  though 
remarkable  cases  occur  in  which  a  person,  by  sheer 
force  of  willing,  can  remain  for  some  time  more  or  less 
insensible  to  physical  influences.  Both  phases  are 
strikingly  illustrated  in  a  hypnotised  person,  in  whom, 
it  is  held,  a  concentrated  energy  of  willing  has  been 
produced.      Such   an   one   can   be   made    to    become 


GENERAL   PRINCIPLES  99 

practically  insensible  to  the  ordinary  painful  effects  of 
having  a  long  pin  thrust  into  him,  or  can  be  caused  to 
suffer  the  most  acute  and  agonising  pains  from  a  sug- 
gested toothache.  This  is  of  course  a  very  extreme 
example,  but,  to  a  much  less  extent,  similar  results 
occur  when  the  attention  is  directed  either  positively  or 
negatively  towards  certain  physical  stimuli. 

At  the  same  time,  it  must  be  observed  that  we  do 
not  communicate  the  feelings,  but  bring  about  the 
conditions  which  are  ordinarily  accompanied  by  them. 
For,  unless  the  consciousness  is  receptively  and  respon- 
sively  active,  there  is  very  little,  if  any,  feeling. 

As  in  feeling  so  in  knowing,  we  cannot  give  the 
individual  knowledge,  as  si?ch,  directly ;  we  can  only 
supply  the  conditions  which  are  most  likely  to  result  in 
his  acquiring  knowledge.  And  it  is  perhaps  a  good 
deal  more  true  of  knowing  than  of  feeling  that  the 
individual  can  resist,  more  easily  and  successfully,  the 
endeavour  to  influence  him ;  though  it  is  also  the  case 
that  there  are  some  conditions  in  which  it  is  practically 
impossible  for  him  to  do  so.  The  fact  of  having  a  feel- 
ing involves  the  receiving  of  some  knowledge — the 
knowledge  of  a  change,  of  the  general  effect  of  this 
change  on  the  mind,  of  the  general  nature  of  the 
object  or  objects,  if  any,  involved,  &c. 

But,  however  much  one  may  try  to  reject  a  certain 
kind  of  knowledge,  or  the  receiving  of  knowledge  under 
certain  conditions,  there  must  always  be  the  taking  in  of 
knowledge  so  long  as  the  consciousness  is  alive.  The 
mind  begins  to  die  in  commencing  to  cease  to  know. 
The  vital  activity  of  mind  expresses  itself  in  the  effort 


100  EDUCATION 

to  take  in  mental  nurture,  i.e.,  knowledge.  There  is  an 
inevitable  appetitive  activity  in  mind,  which  we  may 
term  its  native  curiosity.  However  difficult  it  may  be 
to  direct  a  mind  so  as  to  lead  it  to  get  the  kind  of 
knowledge  we  may  desire  it  to  have,  and  to  get  it  in  a 
certain  way,  it  is  impossible  to  prevent  its  ob- 
taining some  sort  of  knowledge,  in  some  way  or 
other. 

The  principle  of  pleasure  has,  of  course,  by  far  the 
most  to  do  with  the  development  of  feeling,  but,  as 
supplying  the  best  condition  of  the  mind  for  acquiring 
knowledge,  it  has  to  do  with  the  development  of  know- 
ing also.  The  will  is  probably  least  affected  by  it 
directly,  but  it  is  at  least  freed  from  being  distracted 
when  otherwise  concentrated. 

The  Principle  of  Inter-relation  and  Inter-dependence. — 
One  of  the  most  essential  points  in  education  is 
the  determining  what  relation  of  subjects  is  the 
most  effective.  Since  we  have  to  form  a  mind  whose 
great  general  characteristics  are  continuity,  coherence, 
system,  and  unity,  it  is  clearly  of  great  consequence  so 
to  arrange  the  influencing  conditions  as  to  harmonise 
with  these  characteristics.  In  short,  we  must  strive 
to  obtain  continuity,  coherence,  system,  and  unity 
amongst  the  knowledge  agencies,  for  only  so  can  we 
helpfully  influence  the  mental  development  in  these 
respects. 

The  problem  then  is :  what  subjects  ought  to  be 
Fiecured  for  the  purpose  of  producing  the  most  and  best 
knowledge  hi  the  growing  mind;  in  what  way,  and  in 
what  order,  should  these   subjects  be  allowed  to   in- 


GENERAL   PRINCIPLES  101 

fluence  the  mind ;  and  at  what  periods  in  the  mental 
life  ought  the  different  subjects  to  be  made  use  of? 
The  first  two  points  we  will  briefly  consider  now, 
leaving  the  fuller  treatment  of  them,  and  a  discussion 
of  the  third  point,  for  later  chapters. 

To  get  a  really  well- developed  mind,  we  must,  as  far 
as  possible,  exercise  and  nourish  every  one  of  its  powers. 
To  do  this  it  is  necessary  to  bring  every  kind  of  influence 
to  bear  upon  it.  It  is  obviously  impossible  to  do  this 
in  detail,  but  it  is  possible  to  subject  the  mind  to  some 
of  the  most  important,  common,  and  representative 
kinds  of  influences,  and  thus  bring  about  a  more  or  less 
general  and  harmonious  mental  development. 

As  we  have  already  pointed  out,  we  can,  so  to  say, 
bring  the  world  and  its  activities,  in  miniature,  before 
a  child  in  the  schoolroom.  We  can  give  it  knowledge 
of  aesthetic  phenomena  by  pictures,  vocal  and  instru- 
mental inusic,  sculpture,  &c. ;  of  the  human  and  ethical 
through  literature,  history,  and  the  moral  sciences,  &c. ; 
of  the  animal  and  material  through  the  physical  sciences 
and  the  manual  arts,  &c. ;  and  so  on.  School  labora- 
tories, models,  &c.,  extend,  by  type,  the  ordinary  per- 
sonal experience  of  the  individual  in  such  a  way  that 
all  knowledge  has  a  solid  basis  in  the  real ;  whilst 
diagrams,  pictures,  and  school-books  supply  information 
which  can  be  interpreted  according  to  the  knowledge 
gained  by  such  experiences,  and  which,  therefore,  has 
rational  reality  and  real  significance. 

The  family  and  the  school  supply  the  experiences 
which  can  be  made  to  convey  knowledge  of  the  social 
world.     Thus  the  purely  intellectual,  the  ethical,  the 


102  EDUCATION 

social,  and  the  physical  powers  of  man  can  all  be 
developed. 

The  ideal  should  be :  to  get  such  conditions  to  act 
upon  the  individual,  and  for  him  to  act  upon,  that  the 
mind  may  become  all  that  is  possible  to  it,  in  the 
highest  form  and  to  the  greatest  extent.  The  mind 
should  be  so  exercised  and  developed  by  the  conditions 
which  surround  it,  that  it  becomes  able  to  take  up  an 
intelligent  attitude  towards  all  forms  of  knowledge. 
It  should  acquire  such  powers  and  methods  that  it  will 
seldom,  if  ever,  be  entirely  at  a  loss  in  dealing  with 
new  combinations  of  experience  and  fresh  forms  of 
knowledge.  Only  the  difficulties  of  detail  will,  as  a 
rule,  trouble  such  a  mind,  except  in  the  region  of  dis- 
covery. We  must,  in  short,  make  use  of  all  the  diflTer- 
ent  kinds  of  knowledge  influences  as  conditions  for 
securing  the  greatest  and  best  mental  development. 

In  considering  the  way  and  order  in  which  such  con- 
ditions should  be  made  to  influence  the  mind,  we  have 
to  deal  with  the  manner  and  sequence  in  which  we 
should  use  the  difierent  kinds  of  knowledge  influences  of 
which  we  know,  i.e.,  the  method,  order,  and  relation  we 
should  employ  in  trying  to  get  the  individual  to  under- 
stand the  knowledge  which  belongs  to  the  different 
sciences  and  arts. 

Attention  has  been  drawn  to  the  fact  that  all  new 
presentations  depend  very  much  for  their  meaning  and 
fulness  upon  what  is  already  in  the  mind,  of  a  like 
nature,  through  the  accumulation  and  interpretative 
effects  of  re-presentations.  Thus  new  knowledge  de- 
pends upon  and  is  largely  formed  by  the  old.     Care 


GENERAL  PRINCIPLES  103 

must,  therefore,  be  taken  to  connect,  as  far  as  possible, 
one  subject  of  knowledge  with  another,  in  the  sense  of 
making  the  one  grow  oat  of  and  develop  from  the 
other.  Thus  all  subjects  of  knowledge  should  be  inter- 
related, and  dependency  developed.  For  so  the  greatest 
amount  of  help  is  given  to  the  developing  mind,  because 
its  own  nature  is  thus  most  nearly  conformed  with. 
The  working  out  of  a  system  of  knowledge  subjects, 
related  with  a  view  to  secure  their  greatest  values  as 
developing  influences,  is  known  as  the  theory  of  cor- 
relation, co-ordination,  concentration,  or,  as  we  have 
termed  it,  inter-relation  and  inter-dependence  of  sub- 
jects of  instruction. 

The  first  point  to  be  decided  upon,  with  regard  to 
such  an  inter-relation  and  inter-dependence  of  subjects, 
is :  what  is  to  be  the  knowledge  subject  whose  develop- 
ing influences  are  the  very  first  to  be  used.  A  little 
thought  will  convince  us  of  the  supreme  importance  of 
deciding  rightly  as  to  this.  Also,  from  the  subject 
which  is  selected  for  this  purpose  we  must  develop  the 
succeeding  subjects,  and  this  development  should  Le  as 
easy,  simple,  and  direct,  as  we  can  possibly  make  it. 
Comenius  says:  ''All  the  studies  must  form  one 
whole ;  must  proceed  from  one  root." 

Let  us  consider  what  principle  should  guide  us  in 
making  the  selection.  Whatever  form  of  influence 
first  affects  the  individual,  and  is  most  freely  responded 
to  by  him,  is  clearly  the  one  which  has  the  greatest 
fitness  in  many  ways.  And  if  we  find  that  the  history 
of  the  race  goes  to  show  that  what  is  true  of  the  infant 
of  to-day  has  been  true  in  a  larger  sense  of  the  infant 


104  EDUCATION 

race,  and  that  out  of  the  results  of  such  influences  have 
come  all  the  various  knowledge  subjects,  then  we  may 
be  satisfied  that  we  have  found  the  right  subject  to 
begin  with. 

There  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  first  kind  of  influences 
by  which  an  individual  is  affected,  and  to  which  he 
most  freely  responds,  is  that  exercised  by  all  kinds  of 
physical  objects  and  forces.  As  a  result  of  this  he  soon 
becomes  able  to  recognise  one  object  from  another, 
and  to  know  something  about  the  concrete  nature  of 
objects,  e,g,,  that  an  object  is  hard  or  soft,  cold  or  warm, 
sweet  or  bitter,  &c.  And  it  is  from  this  kind  of  know- 
ledge that  the  more  detailed  and  more  scientific  forms 
are  developed.  It  is  from  objects  that  we  get  our 
concrete  notions  of  form,  colour,  number,  &c.,  and  it  is 
in  relation  to  them  and  their  activities  that  language 
is  first  used.  We  transfer  the  names  of  bodily 
activities  to  mental  ones  when  we  say  that  we  see 
(the  eye)  the  truth  of  an  idea ;  we  grasp  (the  hand) 
the  meaning  of  a  remark ;  we  overthrow  (physical  cict) 
an  argument,  &c. 

Now,  this  knowledge  of  objects  gained  through  our 
experiences  of  their  parts  and  powers  constitutes,  in 
its  higher  forms,  the  various  physical  sciences.  It  thus 
appears  that  scientific  knowledge,  in  its  simplest  and 
most  primitive  form,  is  the  proper  subject  to  be  used 
as  the  very  first  kind  of  knowledge-influences  for 
mental  development.  It  will  consist  of  a  simple  and 
direct  arrangement  of  knowledge  about  those  common 
objects  which  surround  the  individual,  in  such  a  way  as  to 
lead  most  easily  and  directly  to  other  forms  of  knowledge. 


GENERAL  PRINCIPLES  105 

For  example :  at  first  the  child,  during  the  time  that 
it  is  unable  to  talk,  is  merely  brought  under  the  more  or 
less  systematised  (household  arrangements  and  nursery 
toys)  influences  of  objects.  When  it  is  able  to  speak, 
language  symbols  are  used  to  help  to  make  clearer, 
fuller,  and  more  lasting  the  effects  of  these  influences. 
Number  names,  object  names,  action  names,  quality 
names,  &c.,  are  used  as  freely  and  fully  as  possible. 
All  this,  however,  in  the  form  of  talk  only.  So  is  laid 
the  foundations  of  arithmetic  and  the  mathematical 
sciences,  of  reading,  grammar,  and  literature,  and  of 
the  physical  sciences.  Later  on,  as  the  bodily  powers 
develop,  the  child  is  taught  how  to  make  its  own  re- 
cords, through  imitative  outlines  and  forms,  and 
written  language  symbols,  and  in  this  way  it  may 
he  said  to  be  introduced  to  drawing,  painting,  sculp- 
ture, and  history.  The  experiences  connected  with 
the  local  surroundings  lead  on  to  geography  and 
natural  history,  botany,  &c.,  in  their  wider  and  deeper 
meaning. 

Froebel  seems  to  have  realised  this  truth,  and  sought 
to  put  it  into  practice  in  his  kindergarten.  The  most 
valuable  element  of  the  kindergarten  system  is  the 
systematic  way  in  which  it  aims  at  developing  the 
higher  forms  of  knowledge  from  the  ordinary  playful 
activity  of  the  child,  and  its  inevitable  observations 
and  impressions  of  the  common  objects  by  which  it  is 
surrounded.  Objects  and  actions  are  arranged  and 
grouped  in  a  connected  and  significant  manner.  Froebel 
insisted  that  life  always  forms  a  complete  whole,  and 
that  the  idea  of  education   as  a  mere  collection  of 


I  ©6  EDUCATION 

subjects  of  instruction  was  a  false  and  miscliieyous  one. 
There  must  be  unity  throughout  the  process. 

The  kindergarten  gifts  satisfy  the  child's  desire  for 
playful  activity,  and  also  serve  as  knowledge  influences 
as  to  form,  colour,  material,  number,  and  names:  as 
developing  agents  as  to  powers  of  observation  in  seeing 
likeness  and  difference  :  as  simple  thought  exercises  in 
judging  how  to  arrange  sticks,  wires,  strips  of  paper, 
&c.,  to  imitate  the  form,  size,  pattern,  &c.,  of  given 
models,  and  in  creating  original  variations  on  these : 
and  as  opportunities  for  simple  information  as  to  the 
qualities  and  powers  of  common  things. 

This  is  the  idea  of  organic  growth,  as  against  that  of 
mere  accumulation  of  parts:  the  idea  of  tl^e  development 
of  the  inner  according  to  its  own  proper  nature,  through 
the  assimilation  of  the  outer,  according  to  its  proper 
nature,  as  against  that  of  merely  plastering  the  external 
on  to  the  internal:  the  idea  of  true  development  as 
against  that  of  mere  accumulation. 

The  above  will  serve  to  indicate  the  nature  of  the 
principle  involved  in  the  correlation  of  studies.  To 
discuss  the  subject  at  length  would  require  a  separate 
book.  Tiiere  has  been  a  considerable  amount  written 
about  the  matter,  and  much  of  the  best  work  of  recent 
writers  has  dealt  with  it,  some  of  them  having  worked 
out  a  detailed  syllabus  of  work  to  illustrate,  and  prac- 
tically realise,  the  right  application  of  the  principle. 

Eeflection  will  show  that  such  a  system  also  accords 
with  the  progressive  activity  of  attention,  since  it  is  a 
continual  increasing  of  the  breadth  and  depth  of  mental 
assimilation   and    discrimination   of   the    elements   of 


GENERAL  PRINCIPLES  107 

experience,  and  the  resulting  classifications  into  new 
and  more  significant  groups.  Moreover,  an  orderly  and 
constructive  arrangement  of  knowledge  influences  will 
not  only  aid,  but  will  practically  compel,  an  orderly 
and  constructive  mental  association  of  knowledge.  In 
brief,  system  and  unity  in  the  product  are  most  likely 
to  be  produced  by  system  and  unity  in  the  processes. 

Educational  Values. — Some  aspects  of  the  value  of  the 
niental  nourishment  with  which  we  seek  to  develop  the 
mind,  demand  further  notice.  Some  knowledge  sub- 
jects are  specially  rich  in  mental  nourishment,  or 
are  particularly  well  suited  for  exercising  mind  in  a 
gymnastic  sense ;  some  have  a  sort  of  tonic  effect  upon 
the  whole  mind ;  and  others  are  most  valuable  as  helps 
in  practical  life.  These  are  generally  spoken  of  as  edu- 
cational values.  According  to  our  definition  of  education, 
we  cannot  regard  the  last  of  them  as  being  strictly  edu- 
cational, except  in  so  far  as  they  provide  stimulative 
interest. 

As  a  matter  of  fact,  there  is  no  knowledge  subject 
which  has  not  got  more  or  less  of  all  the  educational 
values,  but  just  as  some  bodily  foods  contain  a  greater 
amount  of  flesh-forming  and  heat-giving  properties 
than  others,  whilst  all  contain  more  or  less  of  each,  so 
some  knowledge  subjects  possess  a  high  degree  of  one 
kind  of  educational  value,  and  very  little  of  the  others. 
We  must,  therefore,  make  a  proper  selection  of  subjects 
according  as  we  desire  to  produce  certain  effects  upon 
the  mind. 

The  principle  of  inter-relation  and  inter-dependence 
is  primarily  and  chiefly  concerned  with  the  development 


108  EDUCATION 

of  knowing;  but  its  organising  eflEect  is  general,  and,      * 
therefore,  it  greatly  assists  in  the  developing  of  feeling 
and  willing. 

Discipline  Value. — ^We  have  taken  development  as 
the  end  of  true  education,  and,  therefore,  the  chief 
element  of  value  for  us  in  any  knowledge  subject  is  its 
power  of  exercising,  calling  forth,  and  enriching  the 
powers  of  the  mind.  As  an  athlete  who  desires  to  get 
the  greatest  possible  results  from  his  bodily  powers 
systematically  arranges  his  diet  and  his  exercise,  so 
that  both  are  in  harmony  with  the  nature,  and  pro- 
portionate to  the  strength,  of  his  body;  so  we  must 
nourish  and  exercise  the  mind  on  a  definite  and  sound 
system.  To  submit  the  mental  life  to  such  conditions 
is  to  discipline  it,  and  those  knowledge  subjects  which 
seem  to  us  to  be  best  suited  for  this  purpose  are  said 
to  have  great  disciplinary  value. 

If  it  be  true  that  nothing  is  in  the  intellect  which 
was  not  first  in  the  senses,  and,  therefore,  that  all  our 
highest  forms  of  knowledge  are  based  ultimately  upon 
sense-given  material,  it  is  clear  that  the  most  nourishing 
knowledge  subjects  will  be  those  which  deal  with  our 
concrete  experiences,  such  as  the  physical  sciences.  But 
it  must  not  be  forgotten  that  mind  feeds  upon  itself,  so 
to  say,  by  getting  higher  values  out  of  the  thoughts 
that  come  more  directly  from  experiences.  The  proper 
feeding  of  the  mind  upon  such  knowledge  infiuences 
will,  so  to  put  it,  make  the  general  mental  structure 
solid,  sound,  aud  powerful.  By  a  wise  selection,  a 
proper  amount  of  the  various  nourishing  elements  will 
be  given;  the  mental  growth  will  be  fully  provided  for; 


GENERAL  PKINCIPLES  109 

each  power  of  mind  will  have  its  proper  nutriment; 
and  there  will  be  no  unnecessary  waste  of  energy  in 
receiving  and  assimilating  the  mental  food. 

All  knowledge  subjects  which  are  largely  taught 
through  the  directed  and  controlled  activity  of  the 
individual  himself,  in  connection  with  physical| objects, 
have  a  high  disciplinary  (nutritive)  value.  And  it  is 
from  this  point  of  view  that  what  is  known  as  physical 
and  manual  education  is  so  valuable  in  its  bearing  on 
the  intellectual  life. 

But  there  is  also  the  essential  and  all-important 
element  of  exercise,  as  such,  in  the  discipline  value  of 
knowledge  subjects.  It  has  been  insisted  that  exercise 
is  the  very  foundation  of  development.  It  is  a  condition 
of  life  itself,  for  the  stagnant  decays  and  dies.  Exercise 
not  only  develops  power,  but,  if  rightly  organised,  it 
teaches  the  most  fruitful  and  easy  methods  of  applying 
power.  The  gymnast  learns  exactly  how  and  when  to 
use  his  force  so  as  to  get  the  greatest  eflfect  with  the 
least  effort.  Thus  a  small  and  not  very  strong  but 
well-trained  woman  can,  by  carefully  arranging  and 
balancing  the  weight  of  four  big  men,  and  by  properly 
applying  her  strength,  lift  them  and  the  chair  on  which 
they  are  seated  clear  from  the  ground.  Similarly,  a 
well-trained  mind  can  use  its  powers  to  the  greatest 
advantage,  and  perform  tasks  which  would  otherwise 
be  impossible. 

There  is  of  course  a  good  deal  of  exercise  in  the 
receiving  and  assimilating  of  nourishment,  and,  so  far 
as  the  nourishment  is  carefully  ordered,  both  as  to  its 
kind  and  the  manner  in  which  it  is  given,  the  exercise 


110  EDUCATION 

which  accompanies  it  is  of  the  highest  value.  It  is, 
however,  possible  to  arrange  that  exercise,  as  such, 
shall  be  the  predominant  element  in  mental  activity. 
To  do  this,  we  must  as  far  as  possible  leave  out  the 
more  purely  nutritive  elements.  This  we  are  able  to  do 
in  what  are  called  the  formal  or  abstract  knowledge 
subjects,  e.g.^  mathematics,  grammar,  logic.  These 
subjects  deal  not  with  concrete  things,  but  with  the 
systems  of  symbols  which  we  have  invented  to  repre- 
sent them,  and  the  processes  which  are  possible  with 
these.  Thus  the  nutritive  element  of  ordinary  con- 
crete experience  is  at  a  minimum,  whilst  the  activity 
of  mind  itself  is  at  a  maximum  in  dealing  with  such 
matters.  By  orderly  and  systematic  courses  of  mental 
training  in  these  subjects  the  power  and  skill  of  the 
mind  are  greatly  increased.  For  example,  if  Euclid  is 
intelligently  and  thoroughly  taught,  the  mind  is  likely  to 
get  a  power  and  habit  of  carefully  testing  the  coherence, 
consistency,  and  soundness  of  anything  which  is  oflfered 
as  demonstration  or  proof.  This  is  the  kind  of  discipline 
obtained  from  the  deductive  sciences. 

Physical  science  subjects  are  not  only  of  high  discip- 
linary value  from  the  nutritive  point  of  view,  but  also 
from  the  point  of  view  of  pure  exercise.  For  in  dealing 
with  pure,  as  opposed  to  practical  and  applied  science, 
we  have  for  the  most  part  to  do  chiefly  with  the 
rational  elements  of  experience — ^with  general  truths 
and  principles.  The  mind  is  constantly  exercised  in 
that  which  is  for  mind  only — the  meaning  or  inter- 
pretation of  experiences.  And  the  discipline  thus 
obtained  is  particularly  valuable,  because  it  is  in  such 


GENERAL   PRINCIPLES  111 

work  that  the  mind  gains  the  power  and  habit  of  fully 
and  accurately  receiving  and  responding  to  stimuli,  of 
judging  relations  rightly,  and  of  making  those  uni- 
versal judgments  about  phenomena  which,  when  pro- 
perly expiiBSsed,  we  call  laws  or  principles. 

Any  want  of  precision  or  completeness  in  rightly 
appreciating  and  interpreting  the  material  dealt  with 
leads  to  wrong  general  judgments,  tmd  the  error  is 
pretty  certain  to  be  shown  up  by  later  experience, 
especially  if  we  pursue  a  course  of  action  based  upon 
the  supposed  accuracy  of  such  general  judgments. 
If,  for  example,  a  person  interpreted  his  observations  of 
a  large  plain  so  as  to  form  the  judgment  that  as  a 
whole  it  was  perfectly  level,  and  proceeded  to  make  a 
canal  across  it  strictly  according  to  this  judgment,  he 
would  find  that  his  ideas  were  in  conflict  with  facts ; 
for,  owing  to  the  real  nature  of  the  earth's  surface 
engineers  have  to  allow  about  eight  inches  per  mile  for 
the  natural  curvature  of  the  land. 

The  consequences  of  such  results  are:  observations 
and  judgments  are  made  with  great  care  and  caution  : 
experiments  are  repeated :  judgments  are  thoroughly 
tested :  a  severely  critical  method  of  thought  is  culti- 
vated: and  universal  judgments  are  accepted  only 
after  searching  and  repeated  trials.  So  mind  acquires 
a  power  and  habit  of  self-criticism.  This  is  the  dis- 
cipline of  the  inductive  sciences. 

It  is  interesting  and  instructive  to  compare  these 
ideas  on  the  regulated  nutrition  and  exercise  of  the 
mind  with  the  facts  of  bodily  life  during  infancy.  In 
the  first  year  or  so  of  physical  life  the  infant  does  little 


112  EDUCATION 

more  than  eat  and  take  exercise,  and  it  is  according  to 
how  wisely  and  thoroughly  these  are  regulated  by  those 
who  have  charge  of  the  child,  that  the  health,  vigour, 
and  development  of  the  body  are  secured. 

Culture  Value. — ^While  it  is  of  great  moment  thus  to 
provide  for  the  development  of  the  mind,  as  such,  it  is 
not  less  important  that  great  care  should  be  taken  as 
to  the  general  nature  and  character  of  the  development 
which  is  brought  about.  We  must  attend  to  the  content 
of  the  developed  powers,  or  we  may  after  all  produce  only 
a  sharp  and  shrewd  mental  machine  instead  of  a  full, 
powerful,  and  great  mind.  Further,  we  want  not  only  a 
full  and  deep  mind,  but  one  that  is  well  balanced, 
whose  powers  show  grace  and  beauty  in  process  and 
product,  and  whose  general  nature  and  character  are 
lofty  and  noble.  We  want  to  obtain  the  highest  value 
of  man,  as  man,  from  the  purely  educational  stand- 
point, i.e.,  with  regard  to  the  most  perfect  development 
of  his  powerp 

Now,  the  harmoniously  developed  and  cultured  mind 
is  generally  accepted  as  the  highest  form  of  mind. 
Hence  we  must  make  use  of  those  knowledge  subjects 
which  thus  fill  the  mind  with  a  rich  content  because 
they  have  high  culture  value.  It  is  a  question  of  the 
civilised  man  as  against  the  savage,  and  of  the  philo- 
sophical and  practical  man  as  against  the  purely 
practical  one. 

Before  we  can  decide  as  to  which  subjects  possess  a 
high  degree  of  culture  vahie,  we  must  agree  as  to  what 
in  to  be  regarded  as  a  cultured  mind.  We  have  already 
spoken  of  balance  of  mental  powers,  grace  and  beauty 


r      V 


GENERAL   PRINCIPLES  113 

of  mental  processes  and  prodacts,  and  higli-  and  noble 
qualities.  To  these  we  may  add  intellectual  sympathy, 
in  its  broadest  and  deepest  sense.  By  this  we  mean  an 
appreciation  of,  desire  for,  pleasure  in,  and  love  of,  all 
forms  of  truth,  beauty,  and  goodness,  wherever  found. 
To  put  it  in  quite  general  terms,  the  most  cultured 
mind  is  the  mind  which  has  all  the  highest  products  of 
the  best  mental  cultivation  in  their  most  refined  forms. 
It  is  the  highest  mental  expression  of  humanity,  and, 
therefore,  will  proceed  mainly  from  the  influences  of 
those  subjects  which  are  more  directly  concerned  with 
the  human  being  as  such. 

Subjects  which  have  a  high  culture  value  will  appeal 
to  the  whole  mental  nature.  They  will  give  an  organic 
tone  to  the  mind.  The  mind  will,  so  to  say,  give  forth 
the  effects  of  a  full,  powerful,  but  well-modulated 
orchestra,  as  against  the  empty  roll  of  a  drum,  or  even 
the  less  full  beauty  of  a  well-played  solo.  And  such 
results  are  most  fully  and  easily  brought  about  by  those 
subjects  which  deal  with  the  universal  elements  in 
human  life.  Subjects  like  geography,  history,  litera- 
ture, philosophy,  music,  and  art,  which  contain  records 
and  expositions  of  the  most  important,  refined,  and 
spiritual  results  of  human  life,  thought,  and  action, 
enrich  and  ennoble  to  a  very  large  extent  the  mind 
which  is  sympathetically  subjected  to  their  influences. 

TItility  Value. — Practical  life  is,  after  all,  our  chief 
concern,  as  all  our  knowledge  is  derived  from  it,  and  to 
it  all  the  powers  which  knowledge  gives  are  again 
directed.  Life,  indeed,  consists  in  living,  and  all  our 
efforts  to  further  human  development  in  the  individual 


114  EDUCATION 

and  the  race  would  be  but  lost  labour,  if  it  did  not 
result  in  a  fuller  and  richer  living  of  our  lives. 

In  the  first  chapter  we  urged  that  the  present  con- 
ception of  education  has  arisen  from  the  necessities  of 
modem  life.  It  is  for  the  life  of  a  community  that  we 
are  fitting  the  developing  individual,  and  we  may  say 
that  it  is  by  the  social  life,  through  the  means  which  it 
provides  and  the  efforts  which  it  makes — as  in  national 
systems  of  schools,  &c. — that  education  is  possible. 
The  individual,  so  to  speak,  absorbs  the  social  life  by 
which  he  is  surrounded;  he  lives  upon  it,  and  has 
later  on  to  live  for  it.  A  person  is  acted  upon  by 
society,  but  he  also  reacts  upon  it,  and  it  depends 
upon  the  manner  of  his  reaction  whether  it  be  to  his 
advantage  or  disadvantage ;  for  if  he  acts  in  harmony 
with  his  social  surroundings  he  will  gain  thereby, 
and  if  his  actions  conflict  with  them,  he  will  suffer 
for  it. 

Clearly,  therefore,  the  general  well-being,  present 
and  future,  of  the  developing  being  depends  upon  the 
way  in  which  each  and  all  of  his  actions  are  related  to 
his  social  surroundings.  He  has  to  endeavour  to  make 
himself  a  part  of  the  social  whole,  and  in  doing  so  he 
will  make  the  social  whole  more  helpful  to  his  own 
individuality. 

Although,  as  we  have  said,  education,  as  such,  has 
nothing  whatever  to  do  with  the  use  which  we  make  of 
our  developed  powers,  yet  it  is  of  great  importance  to 
discover  definite  reasons,  should  such  exist,  for  choosing 
between  two  or  more  knowledge  subjects  which  appear 
to  be  equally  good  for  purely  educational  purposea     If 


GENEEAL   PRINCIPLES  115 

one  subject  is  likely  to  prove  more  practically  useful,  and 
also  more  interesting  than  the  other,  it  should  be  chosen. 

For  example,  let  us  suppose  that  the  educational 
values  of  the  French  language  and  the  Chinese 
language  are  equal.  Is  there  any  reason  for  selecting 
the  one  rather  than  the  other,  when  educating  an 
English  boy  who  is  likely  to  spend  his  life  as  the 
ordinary  Englishman  does  ?  Surely  there  are  a  good 
many  reasons  for  choosing  the  French  language.  The 
mode  of  thought  expressed  by  it  very  closely  resembles 
that  of  the  learner ;  the  letters  in  which  it  is  written 
are  similar  to  those  used  in  English ;  many  of  the 
words  very  closely  resemble  each  other  in  the  two 
languages;  French  literature  is  finer,  more  advanced, 
more  extensive,  &c.,  than  the  Chinese;  the  nations 
have  a  good  deal  more  intercourse ;  and  so  on. 

Again,  in  physical  education  the  powers  of  the  hand 
could  be  developed  by  finger  drill,  exercises  in  grasping, 
&c. ;  but  it  is  decidedly  more  advantageous  to  get  the 
same  kinds  of  results  through  carefully  arranged 
exercises  in  handling  tools,  playing  the  piano,  &c.  So 
also  we  shall  judge  with  regard  to  applied  science  and 
pure  science.  If  we  can  get  all  the  educational  results 
we  desire  from  the  applied  science,  then  this  is  a  strong 
reason  why  it  should  be  chosen,  rather  than  the  pure 
science. 

The  utility  value  of  a  subject  is  therefore  a  deciding 
element  in  cases  of  choice  between  subjects  having 
nearly  equal  educational  value.  Other  things  being 
equal,  or  nearly  so,  we  should  always  choose  the  subject 
which  has  the  greater  utility  value.     And  not  only  so, 


116  EDUCATION 

but  it  is  well  to  give  all  subjects  some  utility  value  by 
relating  them  to  practical  life,  so  far  as  this  does  not 
prejudice  the  progress  of  development.  Fortunately, 
there  is  no  real  inconsistency  between  the  two,  and 
very  seldom  is  there  even  a  conflict  between  them. 
Those  knowledge  subjects  which  have  the  greatest 
educational  values  have  generally  also  great  practical 
value,  and,  therefore,  veiy  great  interest. 

It  is  the  utility  value  of  subjects  which  has,  for  the 
most  part,  hitherto  been  considered  in  drawing  up 
Bchemes  of  instruction  for  schools.  Hence  we  have 
the  "modern  side,"  which  is  professional  and  com- 
mercial in  its  aim,  in  our  public  schools ;  whilst  even 
the  "  classical  side  "  has  utility  value,  since  the  fact  of 
having  done  well  in  it  is  accepted  as  a  qualification  for 
teaching  in  such  a  school,  and  a  knowledge  of  the 
classical  languages  is  also  regarded  as  necessary  for 
most  of  the  learned  professions. 

There  is  no  objection  to — indeed  there  is  every  reason 
for — taking  account  of  what  the  future  life  of  the  indi- 
vidual is  going  to  be,  especially  towards  the  end  of  his 
course  of  education,  so  long  as  this  consideration  •  takes 
the  secondary,  and  not  the  primary,  position.  If  it 
takes  the  first  place,  then  we  are  making  schemes  of 
useful  instruction,  and  not  a  system  of  pure  education  ; 
and  it  was  in  this  sense  that  we  previously  said  that 
technical  schools  and  colleges,  professional  training 
institutions,  &c.,  are  not  places  of  education,  as  such. 
It  will  be  seen  that  the  questions  connected  with  the 
educational  values  of  knowledge  subjects  are  very 
clodely  connected  with  the  correlation  of  subjects  and 


GENERAL  PRINCIPLES  117 

also  with  the  general  development  of  the  knowing 
powers  of  the  mind.  The  elements  which  make  up  the 
values  may  be  said  to  have  special  influence  in  develop- 
ing the  individual.  Discipline  affects  knowing  most, 
culture  influences  feeling  chiefly,  and  utility  has,  prob- 
ably, through  interest,  the  greatest  effect  upon  willing. 

The  Principle  of  Eepetition.— For  knowledge  to  have 
real  existence  for  the  mind  it  must  be  a  permanent 
possession,  ie.,  the  results  of  knowledge-giving  in- 
fluences must  be  firmly  retained  by  the  memory. 
Extraordinary  experiences  impress  themselves  deeply 
upon  the  mind  by  their  unusual  character  or  force. 
Ordinary  experiences  are  best  fixed  in  the  memory  by 
careful  repetition,  for  such  is  the  native  capacity  of 
mind  for  retaining  the  effects  which  are  produced  in  it, 
that  the  mere  recurrence  of  events  serves  to  fix  them  in 
the  memory. 

How  necessary  it  is  to  get  the  memory  to  do  its 
work  thoroughly  will  be  recognised  when  we  reflect 
that  every  new  experience  owes  much,  if  not  most,  of 
its  meaning  and  value  to  the  action  of  the  knowledge 
gained  from  former  experience.  That  is,  the  worth  of 
a  presentation  depends  largely  upon  the  work  of  re- 
presentations, and  the  fulness  and  force  of  the  re- 
presentations will  be  according  to  the  faithfulness  and 
freedom  of  the  memory.  Also,  old  thoughts  and 
experiences  must  be  constantly  reproduced  in  conscious- 
ness if  we  are  to  obtain  from  them  all  the  knowledge 
that  is  possible.  Hence,  education  must  point  out  the 
conditions  which  best  secure  the  most  extensive  and 
accurate  memory. 


118  EDUCATION 

Eepetition  acts  upon  the  mind  in  two  ways.  It 
causes  the  details  of  the  activities  which  are  necessary 
for  the  response,  or  series  of  responses,  to  a  given 
stimulus  to  become  easy,  certain,  and  more  or  less 
fixed  ;  so  much  so,  tliat  in  some  cases  it  is  very  difficult 
to  prevent  them  from  acting  at  the  wrong  time.  Thus, 
if  one  has  been  much  and  frequently  amused  by  a 
humorous  parody  of  a  serious  poem,  it  is  sometimes 
impossible  to  prevent  the  mind  from  re-presenting  the 
parody  even  when  the  original  is  given  with  solemn 
surroundings.  In  otber  words,  memory  habits  are 
formed.  Again,  repetition  causes  the  mental  results  of 
such  repeated  activities  to  become  more  full,  clear, 
fixed,  and  easily  revivable. 

Just  as  an  original  impression  is  more  or  less  firmly 
fixed  in  the  memory  according  as  it  is  more  or  less 
vivid,  clear,  forcible,  and  interesting ;  so  also  will  any 
repetition  of  the  experience  serve  still  further  to 
mpress  it  upon  the  mind  in  proportion  as  it  has  one 

more  of  these  qualities.  Perhaps  the  most  important 
point  with  regard  to  repetitions  is  the  keeping  up  of 
the  interest.  If  the  same  materials  and  method  are 
always  used,  it  will  become  increasingly  difficult  to 
impart  interest  and  secure  attention.  Hence,  novelty 
should  be  introduced  in  sufficient  amount  to  give  in- 
terest and  obtain  attention,  without  causing  distraction 
from  the  real  point  of  the  experience.  It  must  also 
be  remembered  that  repetition  itself,  however  varied 
the  conditions,  will  become  uninteresting  if  it  be  too 
freqoent  or  too  long-continued. 

Another  valuable  aid  in  securing  good  memory  is  to 


GENERAL   PRINCIPLES  119 

use  every  simple,  direct,  and  helpful  form  of  association 
that  is  possible,  without  being  burdensome.  The  putting 
of  the  points  to  be  remembered  in  a  well-arranged 
visual  or  aural  group,  which  answers  to  a  scientific 
sequence  (where  possible),  will  often  be  of  great  assist- 
ance— through  association  by  contiguity.  Also  the 
matter  in  hand  should  be  carefully  explained  and  made 
clear  to  the  intelligence,  so  that  association  by  intel- 
lectual similarity  may  aid  the  memory. 

It  must  never  be  forgotten  that  memory  is  nob  a 
kind  of  separate  mental  machinery  into  which  it  is 
possible  to  cram  all  sorts  of  odds  and  ends  by  mere 
dint  of  pushing.  Clear  understanding  and  thorough 
mental  relation  form  the  best  and  surest  basis  of  exact 
remembrance.  At  the  same  time,  there  is  the  passive 
and  mechanical  side  of  memory,  which  must  neither  be 
neglected  nor  presumed  upon.  There  must  be  a  proper 
amount  of  exercise  given  according  to  a  good  system. 
Such  a  system  will  be  based  upon  a  proper  correlation 
of  our  knowledge  about  classes  and  individuals. 

The  principle  of  repetition  is,  perhaps,  the  most 
general,  as  it  is  certainly  one  of  the  most  important 
and  valuable  of  all  educational  principles.  It  should 
govern  the  application  of  all  the  other  principles  of 
education.  All  the  higher  forms  of  life,  and  all  their 
higher  functions,  seem  to  depend  very  largely  upon  this 
principle. 

The  Principle  of  Preparation.— Very  little  more  need 
be  said  about  the  value  of  getting  the  mind  ready  for 
what  is  coming.  To  bring  into  consciousness  the  most 
appropriate  re-presentations    just    before  a  particular 


120  EDUCATION 

presentation  takes  place,  is  to  put  the  mind  into  a  con- 
dition in  which  its  highest  powers  of  receptivity  and 
responsiveness  are  active. 

The  effects  of  good  mental  preparation  would  be  well 
illustrated  in  the  case  of  two  persons  attending  a  lecture 
in  the  middle  of  a  course.  If  one  of  them  has  been  to 
all  the  previous  lectures,  has  clearly  and  completely 
grasped  what  has  already  been  said,  and  has  given 
some  thought  to  its  bearing  on  the  lecture  in  question, 
whilst  the  other  has  done  none  of  these  things,  and 
knows  hardly  anything  about  the  subject,  then  the 
amount  of  knowledge  which  the  former  would  be  likely 
to  obtain  from  the  lecture  would  be  many  times  as 
much  as  that  which  the  latter  would  probably  get. 

To  have  plenty  of  ideas  on  a  subject  is  not  of  so 
much  value  as  always  to  have  them  ready  when  wanted. 
How  often  do  we  think  of  the  right  thing  to  do  when 
it  is  too  late  to  do  it ;  of  the  witty  or  wise  reply  when 
it  is  too  late  to  give  it.  We  have  been  taken  off  our 
guard  as  we  say,  i.e.,  the  mind  was  not  prepared  to 
bring  all  its  resources  to  bear,  because  its  attention  was 
not  pre-ad justed. 

Not  less  important  is  the  securing  of  sufficient  time 
for  the  mind  to  adjust  itself  for  each  item  in  a  series  of 
continuous  experiences.  This  kind  of  preparation  is 
likely  to  prevent  many  mistakes  of  assimilation  and 
discrimination  which  might  take  place  in  a  hurried, 
and,  therefore,  superficial  and  uncritical  relating  of  the 
presented  to  the  re-presented.  Too  often  one  finds 
that  a  hasty  endeavour  to  acquire  knowledge  quickly 
has  resulted  in  many  errors  and    much   confusion  of 


GENERAL   PBINCIPLES  121 

thought,  and  that  much  time  and  eflfort  are  required  to 
correct  the  mistakes  made. 

In  the  young  it  is  often  necessary  or  expedient  to 
establish,  if  possible,  a  favourable  or  unfavourable 
disposition  towards  a  coming  experience.  This  is  espe- 
cially the  case  with  regard  to  moral  estimates  of  actions 
and  individuals,  and  is  also  helpful  in  connection  with 
scientific  phenomena,  &c.,  because  of  the  overwhelming 
influence  of  feeling  in  the  child's  life.  But  such  pre- 
paration needs  to  be  used  with  very  great  judgment 
and  caution,  and  in  ever-decreasing  amount.  The  only 
justification  for  such  a  course  is,  that  we  are  fully  con- 
vinced of  the  fitness  of  the  pre-disposition,  tmd  that  it 
is  necessary  thus  to  guide  the  mind  which  has  not  yet 
got  the  power  to  guide  itself  in  right  judgment. 

It  should,  however,  always  be  the  aim  to  secure,  as 
far  as  we  can,  an  unprejudiced  attitude  towards  the 
expected  experience.  When  the  individual  begins  to 
think  for  himself,  it  is  difficult  to  persuade  him  to  allow 
for,  or  to  exclude,  preconceived  notions  about  new 
experiences,  and  it  is  still  harder  for  the  adult  to 
discount  what  ft  called  the  personal  equation,  i.e.,  the 
effects  of  his  habits  of  thought :  of  his  personal  likings 
and  dislikings  :  of  his  practical  interest  (if  any)  :  of  his 
general  condition  of  mind  and  body  at  the  moment, 
&c.,  in  the  forming  of  a  judgment. 

So  far  as  we  are  able  thus  .to  prepare  the  mind,  by 
bringing  into  consciousness  all  those  ideas,  and  into 
activity  all  the  powers,  which  are  likely  to  make  the 
presentation  more  readily,  fully,  and  accurately  inter- 
preted and  assimilated  ;  and,  further,  exclude  or  lessen 


122  EDUCATION 

the  effects  of  all  the  ideas  and  powers  which  hinder  the 
reception,  or  prevent  the  estimate,  of  a  presentation; 
so  far  shall  we  obtain  knowledge  more  swiftly,  surely, 
and  soundly. 

The  Principle  of  Interest. — Since  self -activity  is  the 
basis  of  development,  willing  the  source  of  self- activity, 
and  interest  the  most  powerful  motive  to  willing,  it  is 
clear  that  the  quantity  and  quality  of  development  will 
largely  depend  upon  the  force  and  nature  of  the  interests 
which  affect  the  individual. 

We  have  said  that  individuals  can,  if  they  will,  render 
themselves  almost  entirely  unresponsive  to  feeling  and 
knowing  influences,  in  particular  cases ;  and  they  can 
remain  more  or  less  unaffected  by  them  for  considerable 
periods  of  time.  Children  who  seem  to  care  for  no  reward 
or  punishment,  and  decline  to  receive  nearly  all  kinds 
of  knowledge  are  by  no  means  unknown ;  whilst  those 
who  exhibit  these  tendencies  at  certain  times,  and  with 
regard  to  particular  subjects,  are  far  too  common.  It 
is,  therefore,  of  the  greatest  importance  that  the  active 
consent  and  co-operation  of  the  individual  who  is  being 
educated  should  be  secured. 

Now  it  is  a  common  and  true  saying,  that  what  a 
person  is  interested  in  he  will  do  his  best  work  at. 
The  thing  to  do,  therefore,  is  to  arouse,  in  the  person 
being  educated,  interest  with  regard  to  the  influences 
and  phenomena  which  are  educating  him.  The  interest 
may  be  either  in  favour  of  or  opposed  to  a  certain  thing. 
We  may  be  interested  in  knowing  or  not  knowing, 
having  or  not  having,  a  certain  experience  or  series  of 
experiences,  mental  or  physical.      But  directly  we  are 


GENERAL   PRINCIPLES  123 

interested,  one  way  or  the  other,  the  attention  is  fixed, 
desire  is  excited,  the  mind  acts,  knowledge  is  gained 
or  nsed,  plans  are  in  some  cases  formed,  and,  if  neces- 
sary, physical  action  is  taken.  In  short,  interest  secures 
purposive  activity  of  mind,  body,  or  both,  towards  some 
definite  end — even  if  the  activity  be  only  that  of  re- 
straint.    It  is  an  unfailing  stimulus  to  willing. 

It  is  this  condition  of  active  interest  in  educative, 
presentations  that  it  is  most  necessary  to  obtain.  In 
proportion  as  this  is  strong,  so  is  the  educative  effect 
great,  and  in  so  far  as  it  is  weak,  the  developing  result 
is  small.  Every  one  recognises  this  in  particular  cases. 
Not  a  few  of  the  most  famous  persons  in  the  world's 
history  were  thought  to  be  more  than  ordinarily 
stupid,  until  having  had  the  chance  of  devoting 
themselves  to  a  subject  which  had  an  absorbing 
interest  for  them,  they  soon  developed  powers  which 
greatly  surprised  and  benefited  the  race.  Whilst  not 
all  have  the  genius  which  thus  excels,  yet  wherever 
interest  is  present,  there,  at  the  least,  the  best 
energy  is  given  to  a  subject,  and,  consequently,  the 
greatest  effects  possible  to  the  individual  are  likely  to 
be  produced. 

Herbart,  the  great  psychologist  and  educationist,  has 
treated  this  matter  very  fully,  and  points  out  that 
wherever  interest  is  aroused  it  is  accompanied  by  just 
those  conditions  of  mind  which  make  for  development. 
Observation  occurs,  because  the  mind  realises  that 
there  is  an  opportunity  for  gaining  additional  pleasure 
or  profit,  or  for  preventing  some  pain  or  loss.  So  long 
as  this,  the  opportunity,  remains  unfulfilled,  there  is  a 


124  EDUCATION 

condition  of  expectation.  If  there  is  further  delay,  and 
the  mind  gives  most  of  its  attention  to  the  expected 
results,  then  there  is  a  desire  which  passes  into 
demand.  And  demand,  whenever  real,  expresses  itself 
in  action. 

This  series  may  occupy  an  appreciable,  and  even 
considerable,  amount  of  time — it  may  be  weeks  or 
months  in  the  case  of  a  somewhat  phlegmatic  and  very 
reflective  adult — ^in  its  completion,  or  it  may  occur 
almost  instantaneously.  It  is  sometimes  very  clearly 
marked  in  the  case  of  an  infant,  who  first  gazes  at  some 
object  with  a  kind  of  curious  and  surprised  look,  then 
stretches  out  its  hand  and  waits  for  its  mother  or  nurse 
to  give  the  thing  to  it,  and  if  it  does  not  receive  it, 
then  begins  to  struggle  violently  to  get  it. 
,  The  great  value  of  such  a  state  of  interest  is,  that  it 
influences  the  individual  as  a  whole,  i.g.,  the  self.  For 
the  time,  the  whole  being  is  practically  concerned  with 
nothing  except  that  which  interests  it.  The  one  and 
only  thing  which  it  then  longs  for  is  to  have  or  not  to 
have  that  which  has  so  entirely  taken  possession  of  its 
attention.  All  the  energy  of  the  self  is  given  up  to 
the  endeavour  to  obtain  the  desired  end.  There  is  a 
conviction,  more  or  less  explicit,  that  unless  the  end  is 
secured  the  self  will  suffer,  either  negatively  (through 
loss  of  pleasure)  or  positively  (through  incurring  pain). 
So  that,  if  the  end  is  gained,  there  is  a  feeling  of  self^ 
realisation,  that  is,  with  regard  to  the  experience,  the 
self  is  what  it  ought  to  be.  This  is  best  illustrated,  in 
its  extreme  form,  in  the  cases  of  faddists,  enthusiasts, 
religious  devotees,  &c. 


GENEKAL  PRINCIPLES  125 

Two  great  classes  of  interest  are  noticed  by  Herbart, 
viz.,  those  interests  which  are  connected  with  know- 
ledge, and  those  which  belong  to  sympathy.  The 
former  depend  upon  the  fact  that  the  mind  appreciates 
and  imitates  in  ideas  the  nature  and  laws  of  all  that  is 
not  mind,  and  brings  these  ideas  into  such  order  and 
system  as  seem  best  to  express  the  relations  of  the 
objects  of  the  physical  world.  It  also  knows  itself. 
The  interests  connected  with  sympathy  arise  from  the 
fact  that  we  can  know  of,  and  share  in,  the  feelings 
which  are  experienced  by  the  society  in  which  we  live, 
and  also  by  the  human  race  as  a  whole. 

He- himself  says :  "The  first  kind  of  interest — ^that 
in  the  objective — ^is  felt  partly  in  the  comprehension  of 
objects,  partly  in  the  grasping  of  their  independence 
according  to  law,  partly  in  the  approval  which  their 
harmony  and  adaptation  to  an  end  win  from  us.  The 
second  kind  of  interest — ^in  the  subjective — devotes 
itself  partly  to  men  as  individual  beings,  partly  to 
society,  and  partly  to  the  relation  of  nature  to  humanity. 
In  all  these  aspects  the  characteristic  of  this  second 
kind  of  interest  lies  in  the  sympathy,  in  the  concentra- 
tion on  human  feelings  (whether  personal  or  those  of 
others).  Quite  foreign  to  this,  on  the  contrary,  is  all 
mere  observation,  however  interesting,  of  human 
beings ;  this  belongs  to  the  first  kind — the  objective. 
Both  kinds  touch  at  their  highest  point  and  meet 
together  in  religion,  for  its  object  is  providence." 
From  the  sympathetic  interests  come  social,  political, 
and  religious  ideals. 

The  interests  which  belong  to  knowledge  are  three. 


126  EDUCATION 

Firstly,  the  empirical  interest,  or  the  interest  which 
the  individnal  has  in  experiences,  as  such ;  in  the 
changes,  variety,  novelty,  &c.,  of  the  phenomena  which 
snrround  and  aflfect  him  ;  in  the  details  of  these  phe- 
nomena (including  his  own  body)  ;  and  in  the  action  of 
himself  and  other  objects.  Secondly,  the  speculative 
interest,  or  the  desire  and  effort  to  understand  these 
empiricals,  by  trying  to  see  in  them  order,  relation, 
system,  law,  and  unity.  Thirdly,  the  aesthetic  interest, 
or  the  disposition  to  discover  ideal  values  for  our 
rational  knowledge  of  things,  in  the  form  of  beauty, 
harmony,  goodness,  design,  truth,  &c. 

The  interests  which  are  connected  with  sympathy 
are  also  three.  Firstly,  human  interest,  or  that 
which  we  have  in  knowing  ourselves  as  human  beings. 
We  want  to  know  what  it  is  that  constitutes  our  own 
feelings  of  joy  and  sorrow,  &c.  Thus  we  come  to  know 
what  are  the  expressions  of  human  feelings  in  others, 
and,  therefore,  what  is  human.  There  is  the  desire  to 
understand  what  is  truest  and  highest  in  human  nature, 
and  this  results  in  an  effort  of  imitation.  Thus  may 
arise  a  sympathetic  union  with  the  whole  human  race. 
Secondly,  the  social  interest,  or  the  interest  which 
the  necessities  of  everyday  life  as  members  of  a  com- 
munity have  for  us.  There  are  obligations  of  self- 
sacrifice,  subordination,  co-ordination,  compromise,  &c., 
which  cannot  be  escaped  if  one's  life  is  to  be  as  comfort- 
able as  may  reasonably,  and  rightly,  be  desired.  This 
is  the  practical  side  of  human  sympathy.  Thirdly,  the 
religious  interest,  or  that  which  leads  man  to  seek  to 
know  his  own  place  in  nature,  and  wbich  leads  him  to 


GENERAL   PEINCIPLES  127 

recognise  his  position  of  dependence.  Thus  is  caused  a 
feeling  of  humility :  of  reverence  for  the  higher  and 
greater :  of  the  infinite  worth  of  things :  of  infinite  pur- 
pose :  and  of  infinite  cause. 

Here,  then,  we  have  an  analysis  of  the  native  springs 
to  action,  mental  and  physical,  in  a  human  being.  It 
gives  us  a  view  of  the  opportunities  and  duties  of  the 
educator,  and  shows  very  clearly  what  kind  of  experi- 
ences and  material  must  be  provided.  These  are  the 
ways  in  which  the  real  self  of  the  individual  can  be 
reached  in  the  easiest,  most  complete,  and  most  effective 
manner. 

These  general  interests  are  proper  to  human  beings 
as  such.  They  make  up  what  we  have  termed  original 
interests.  A  human  being  cannot  help  but  have  them 
in  more  or  less  completeness.  Again,  therefore,  we  see 
the  necessity  of  many-sidedness  of  educative  influences 
to  satisfy  this  many-sidedness  of  interest.  Knowledge 
subjects  must  be  correlated  so  as  best  to  harmonise 
with,  and  aid  the  development  of,  such  mental  character- 
istics. Here,  also,  is  again  shown  the  function  of  the 
educator — to  present  the  whole  world  of  mind  and  matter 
in  miniature,  so  far  as  that  is  possible,  to  the  growing 
mind.     He  is  a  selecting  and  stimulating  agent. 

It  is  the  general  disposition  or  tendency  to  be  thus 
interested  which  exists  in  every  human  being,  and  not 
a  particular  form  of  interest  in  a  particular  subject  at  a 
given  time.  The  latter  must  be  brought  about  by  the 
art  of  the  educator,  and  is  a  subject  which  is  treated  of 
in  considering  the  methods  of  education.  Both  general 
and  particular  instances  of  interest  depend  upon  the 


128  EDUCATION 

strength,  variety,  novelty,  familiarity  (if  not  excessive) 
of  presentations,  and  also  upon  the  general  complex  in 
which  they  occur.  Thus  a  soldier  in  full  uniform,  who 
would  attract  no  special  attention  in  a  regiment,  would 
command  particular  notice  in  a  small  crowd  of  civilians. 

We  must,  therefore,  take  care  that  these  qualities  are 
present  in  the  educating  influences  which  we  em- 
ploy. And  not  only  should  they  be  used,  but  they 
must  be  constantly  and  carefully  selected  and  applied. 
Anything  like  a  mechanical  repetition  of  certain  pre- 
scribed forms  of  them  is  not  likely  to  be  very  helpful. 
Some  modification  or  other  will  nearly  always  be  neces- 
sary, and  this  must  be  a  matter  of  thought  and  judg- 
ment. Nevertheless,  there  is  a  danger  of  having  too 
great  variety,  which  would  distract  the  attention  from 
the  main  points,  and  so  prevent  systematic  assimilation. 

Interest  is  both  a  cause  and  an  effect  of  knowledge. 
The  original  interests  urge  us  on  to  acquire  knowledge, 
and  when  we  have  obtained  it,  there  is  generally  a  desire 
to  obtain  more.  This  is  well  seen  in  the  bright  child 
whose  education  is  conducted  under  free  and  kindly 
conditions.  No  sooner  does  it  gain  some  slight  inform- 
ation about  an  object,  than  it  immediately  follows  up 
the  matter  with  question  after  question  as  to  the  "  why  '* 
of  every  detail,  and  soon  exhausts  the  fund  of  know- 
ledge, or  the  power  of  simple  expression,  of  the  ordinary 
adult. 

Hence,  if  the  disciplinary  element  in  educational 
influences  is  well  and  wisely  used,  the  mind  is  inter- 
ested in  having  purely  mental  exercise,  as  such,  and 
finds  delight  in  trying  to  work  out  simple,  appropriate, 


GENERAL  PRIXCIPLES  129 

and  properly  graded,  intellectual  problems,  puzzles, 
conundrums,  and  catches.  The  keenness,  excitement, 
and  pleasure,  which  children  show  in  well-managed 
exercises  of  this  kind  are  evidences  of  their  value.  This 
is  also  true  in  the  case  of  the  culture  elements.  The 
dramatic  and  artistic  reciting,  or  reading,  of  suitable 
pieces  of  classical  literature :  the  showing  and  explain- 
ing of  beautiful  pictures:  and  the  artistic  rendering 
of  the  best  music,  all  satisfy  a  native  capacity  for 
enjoyment,  and  create  the  demand  for  further  experi- 
ences of  a  like  kind.  For  example :  a  well-told  tale  of 
thrilling  adventure  in  Africa  often  causes  boys  to 
eagerly  read  such  books  as  the  life  of  Livingstone. 

In  the  same  way  the  fact  that  certain  forms  of 
knowledge  have  great  practical  utility  gives  them  spe- 
cial interest.  If  the  ordinaiy  rules  of  arithmetic  are  used 
in  connection  with  everyday  transactions;  if  manual 
exercises  are  illustrated  through  common  household 
articles ;  and  if  drawing  is  taught  from  suitable  objects, 
there  is  likely  to  arise  a  desire  to  extend  the  knowledge 
and  power  thus  obtained. 

Above  all,  where  interests  of  these  kinds  are  pro- 
duced, or  exist,  they  both  stimulate  to  action  and 
reward  the  activity.  A  person  who  is  thus  really  inter- 
ested in  a  course  of  action  desires  no  further  reward 
than  the  satisfaction  of  doing  that  which  he  keenly 
wished  to  do,  or,  at  least,  he  can  be  content  without 
more.  Thus  interest  is  an  end  in  itself  and  is  the  most 
disinterested  (in  the  material  sense),  satisfactory,  com- 
plete, eflfective,  and  worthy  end.  It  is,  therefore,  the 
chief  aim  of  the  educator  to  make  interest  an  indispen- 

I 


130  EDUCATION 

sable  and  suflScient  end  of  educational  action.  With  such 
a  stimulus  it  is  easy  to  impart  mental  nourishment  and 
discipline,  indeed,  it  would  be  diflScult  to  prevent  them 
from  being  obtained,  since  the  appetite  and  activities 
of  the  mind  are  in  a  state  of  vigorous  aggressiveness. 

Interest  is  more  particularly  connected  with  the 
development  of  knowing;  but  since  it  is  generally 
based  upon,  and  always  connected  with,  the  feelings, 
it  has  much  to  do  in  their  development  also.  And 
inasmuch  as  it  is  almost  invariably  accompanied  by 
willing,  in  a  full  and  vigorous  form,  it  does  much  to 
further  its  progress. 

Interest  may  be  said  to  be  a  most  effective,  because 
pleasant  and  impressive,  substitute  for  repetition.  Dr. 
Sully  remarks :  "  The  permanence  of  an  impression 
depends  on  the  degree  of  interest  excited  by  the  object 
and  the  corresponding  vigour  of  the  act  of  attention. 
All  strong  feeling  gives  a  special  persistence  to  im- 
pressions, by  arousing  an  exceptional  degree  of  interest. 
Where  a  boy  is  deeply  affected  by  pleasurable  feeling, 
as  in  listening  to  an  attractive  story  or  in  watching  a 
cricket  match,  he  remembers  distinctly.  Such  intensity 
of  feeling  by  securing  a  strong  interest  and  a  close 
attention,  ensures  a  vivid  impression  and  a  clear  dis- 
crimiDation  of  the  object,  both  in  its  several  parts  or 
details,  and  as  a  whole.  And  the  fineness  of  the  dis- 
criminative process  is  one  of  the  most  determining  con- 
ditions of  retention." 

Dr.  Bain  says:  "Any  kind  of  knowledge  .... 
that  is  obviously  involved  in  any  of  the  strong  feelings 
or  emotions  ....  is  by   that   very   fact  interesting. 


GENERAL   PRINCIPLES  131 

Now  a  great  many  kinds  of  knowledge  are  implicated 
with  those  various  feelings.  To  avoid  pains,  and  ob- 
tain pleasures,  it  is  often  necessary  to  know  certain 
things,  and  we  willingly  apply  our  minds  to  learn  those 

things A  vast  quantity  of  information  respecting 

the  world,  and  respecting  human  beings,  is  gained  in 
this  way ;  and  it  constitutes  an  important  basis  of  even 
the  highest  acquisitions." 

The  elements  of  novelty  and  variety  need  special 
emphasis  in  the  case  of  the  young,  though  even  with 
them  there  is  the  danger  of  excess.  The  educator 
must  beware  of  the  peep-show  order  of  excitement, 
where  so  many  things  are  seen  in  so  short  a  time,  that 
practically  nothing  is  seen. 

Miss  Edgeworth  tells  of  some  Esquimaux  who  were 
taken  for  a  walk  through  the  streets  of  London: 
"When  their  walk  was  ended,  they  appeared  un- 
commonly melancholy  and  stupefied.  As  soon  as  they 
got  home  they  sat  down  with  their  elbows  upon  their 
knees,  and  hid  their  faces  in  their  hands.  The  only 
words  they  could  be  brought  to  utter  were,  *  Too  much 
smoke — ^too  much  noise — too  much  houses — too  much 
men — ^too  much  everything ! '  " 

At  the  same  time,  monotony  is  never  so  monotonous 
as  to  the  young.  Whatever  else  the  educator  can 
aflford  to  neglect,  the  arousing  of  interest  must  always 
be  carefully  provided  for  and  earnestly  striven  after. 
We  may  truly  say  that  the  first  and  last  condition  of 
effective  education  is  interest.  It  is  the  foundation  and 
mainspring  of  successful  effort  on  the  part  of  the  pupil. 
It  is  the  educational  philosopher's  stone  which  turns 


132  EDUCATION 

everything  into  gold.  Through  the  earnestness  and 
devotion  of  teachers,  and  the  interest  excited  thereby 
in  their  pupils,  systems  which  are  in  themselves  in- 
complete and  largely  unsound  have  been  the  means  of 
producing  the  very  highest  and  best  educational  results. 
Where  interest  is  absent  the  most  scientific  and  com- 
plete system  of  education  will  be  likely  to  prove  flat, 
stale,  and  unprofitable. 

Some  of  the  mos^t  interesting  elements  in  a  subject 
are  its  pleasure-giving  power,  the  occasion  for  self-activity, 
the  sense  of  power  which  comes  from  successful  work 
in  it,  the  opportunity  it  ofiers  of  adding  knowledge  to 
what  we  already  possess,  the  stimulating  combination 
of  the  novel  and  familiar  which  it  may  involve,  and 
the  attractiveness  and  impressiveness  of  the  points  of 
beauty,  strength,  strangeness,  greatness,  complexity, 
unity,  power,  and  so  on,  which  may  be  present  in  it. 
Each  and  all  of  these  should  be  realised,  in  their  proper 
place  and  proportion,  for  educational  purposes. 

The  Principle  of  Habituation. — Inasmuch  as  habit  can 
only  be  the  result  of  complete  and  thorough  mental 
adjustment  to,  response  to,  and  grasp  of,  the  details  of 
certain  operations,  we  may  regard  habits  as  the  ex- 
pressions of  the  perfection  of  mental  development  in  the 
matters  which  they  involve;  for  with  regard  to  them 
mind  does  the  very  best  that  it  can  do,  with  the  least 
possible  effort.  For  this  reason,  they  have  very  great 
educational  significance.  They  point  to  what  we  may 
call  practical  mental  perfection,  and,  therefore,  are  the 
best  possible  points  of  departure  for  higher  develop- 
ments. 


GENERAL  PRINCIPLES  133 

The  educator  regards  habit  as  a  kind  of  self-register- 
ing index  of  mental  development.  Whenever  he  has 
reason  to  believe  that  educational  discipline  and 
nurture  have  resulted  in  the  formation  of  a  habit,  he 
considers  that  he  has  completed  the  present  work  of 
development  in  that  case,  and  only  has  to  provide 
against  any  subsequent  loss  of  power  or  skill.  For  the 
same  reason  he  is  always  aiming  at  producing  habits. 
Not,  of  course,  in  the  sense  of  reducing  everything  to 
a  definite  and  invariable  form;  but  in  the  sense  of 
making  materials  and  methods  so  familiar,  and  so 
subject  to  control,  that  they  no  longer  present 
mechanical  difficulties;  and,  therefore,  they  leave  the 
mind  free  for  making  those  higher  judgments  which 
really  express  the  true  self,  and  show  us  to  be  any- 
thing but  the  slaves  of  habit.  It  is  a  good  thing 
to  definitely  cultivate  the  habit  of  being  superior  to 
habits. 

Only  when  the  mind  has  acquired  accurate  habits 
in  dealing  with  materials  and  methods,  in  the  above 
sense,  can  there  be  anything  of  much  value  in  the  way 
of  power  to  solve  new  problems,  complex  cases,  or  real 
difficulties  for  oneself.  Neither  can  there  be  much  in 
the  way  of  original  discovery  in  the  world  of  thought. 
Education  cannot  give  the  native  power  which  is 
necessary  for  such  work,  but  it  can  and  does  give  the 
mind  the  best  possible  preparation  for  using  it.  It 
cannot  make  the  material,  but  it  can  make  the 
material  into  the  best  and  most  powerful  machine. 

Two  of  the  most  important  ways  of  forming  habits 
of  thought  are  those  of  limitation  and  exclusion.     By 


134  EDUCATION 

limitation  is  meant  the  keeping  steadily  in  mind  the 
particular  kind  of  knowledge  desired,  and  a  special 
method  of  obtaining  it,  and  then  persistently  pursuing 
the  end  and  the  means.  But  this  must  apply  only  to 
the  making  of  some  particular  end  a  predominant,  but 
by  no  means  the  sole,  purpose  of  action  for  the  time 
being.  By  exclusion,  therefore,  we  mean  the  power  to 
keep  the  mind  from  thinking  about  those  matters 
which  are  opposed,  or  foreign,  to  a  subject  which  we 
specially  wish  to  keep  in  mind. 

Dr.  Sully  gives  the  following  as  the  main  conditions 
for  the  formation  of  a  habit: — "A  suflScient  motive 
force  brought  to  bear  at  the  outset,  in  order  to  excite 

the   requisite   effort A  prolonged  repetition  of 

the  action  in  connection  with  the  appropriate  cir- 
cumstances  An     uninterrupted    continuity    of 

performance  in  like  circumstances." 

Locke  offers  some  wise  advice  on  habit  when  he 
says :  **  Another  thing  you  are  to  take  care  of,  is,  not 
to  endeavour  to  settle  too  many  habits  at  once,  lest  by 
variety  you  confound  them,  and  so  perfect  none. 
When  constant  custom  has  made  any  one  thing  easy 
and  natural  to  them,  and  they  practise  it  without 
reflection,  you  may  then  go  on  to  another." 

Thus  if  we  wish  to  learn  a  living  language  for  con- 
versational purposes,  it  would  be  a  good  plan  to  live 
amongst  those  who  speak  it,  until  we  had  gained  some 
facility  in  its  use.  It  would  require  very  considerable 
effort  to  resist  the  temptation  to  use  the  mother  tongue; 
but  it  is  necessary  to  the  greatest  success  of  th<^ 
endeavour  that  this  should  be  done. 


GENERAL  PRINCIPLES  135 

All  that  has  been  said  about  the  principle  of  repe- 
tition applies  to  the  principle  of  habituation.  As  was 
then  pointed  out,  the  result  of  appropriate  repetition 
is  the  formation  of  a  habit.  Therefore  all  the  con- 
ditions required  to  obtain  a  good  memory  habit  are 
required  for  other  mental  habits ;  indeed,  we  may  say 
that  all  mental  habits  are  but  memory  habits  with 
varying  contents,  for  they  consist  in  remembering 
certain  thoughts,  feelings,  and  actions,  in  definite 
orders  and  relations.  The  principle  of  pleasure  also 
applies,  for  it  is  much  easier  to  form  a  habit  under 
pleasant  than  under  unpleasant  conditions.  The 
former  further,  but  the  latter  obstruct,  the  establish- 
ing of  those  conditions  which  make  habits. 

A  good  illustration  of  the  growth  of  a  habit,  and  of 
its  value  as  an  economising  agent  in  our  mental  life, 
is  found  in  the  case  of  the  use  of  the  limbs  in  walk- 
ing. Walking  requires  very  'considerable  judgment  in 
the  co-ordinating  of  the  actions  of  a  great  many 
muscles,  and  also  in  the  adjustment  of  the  actual 
movements  of  the  limbs.  The  latter  is  brought  home 
to  us  with  intensely  disagreeable  emphasis  if  we  sup- 
pose that  we  are  walking  on  level  ground,  when,  as  a 
matter  of  fact,  there  is  a  sudden  fall  of  the  ground  in 
the  limits  of  the  stride.  The  very  severe  and  general 
shock  felt  is  due  to  the  want  of  proper  adjustment. 
When  the  child  first  tries  to  walk,  the  whole  of  its 
little  body  labours  heavily,  and  the  great  concentra- 
tion and  effort  of  thought  is  shown  by  the  set  face 
and  steadfast  gaze.  Each  leg  is  lifted  very  slowly 
and  with  great  care  and  consideration,  and  is  advanced 


136  EDUCATIO;^ 

and  set  down  again  with  equal  deliberateness.  It 
hails  the  successful  issue  of  a  short  journey  with 
excited  expressions  of  joy  and  relief. 

Later  on  the  actions  become  so  entirely  a  matter 
of  habit,  that  if  one  stopped  to  consider  how  each 
detail  in  the  process  was  performed,  he  would  pro- 
bably be  unable  to  carry  it  out  without  stumbling  a 
good  deal.  It  is  only  when  recovering  from  an  acci- 
dent to,  or  during  a  disease  of,  one  of  the  limbs,  or  in 
walking  in  a  strange  room  in  the  dark,  that  the  details 
of  movement  become  again  explicit.  Thus  what  at 
first  engaged  the  whole  of  the  power  of  attention, 
finally  requires  practically  no  attention  at  all ;  so  that 
whilst  walking  from  one  place  to  another  through 
various  streets  and  turnings,  one  usually  gives  his 
attention  to  all  kinds  of  subjects  other  than  that  of  his 
own  walking. 

But  it  is  interesting,  and  most  important,  to  notice 
that  if  a  person  desires  to  adopt  a  new  style  of  loco- 
motion such  as  dancing,  then  all  the  conditions  of 
laboured  details  and  slow  conquest,  which  may  finally 
result  in  the  ease  of  habit,  have  to  be  gone  through. 
And  even  the  delights  of  success  in  the  efibrts  are  not 
usually  wanting.  So  like  is  the  man  to  the  child,  and 
the  child  to  the  man — with  a  difierence  of  power  and 
progress  all  in  favour  of  the  man. 

The  above  illustration  indicates  the  place  and  func- 
tion of  habit  in  mental  development,  as  well  as  in 
physical,  and,  therefore,  its  educational  value.  It  has 
been  said  that  to  educate  a  child  is  to  lead  it  to 
acquire  good  habits.     So  long  as  this  is  understood 


GENERAL  PRINCIPLES  137 

to  mean  that  each  habit  is  to  be  regarded  as  a  com- 
pleted item  of  development,  which  is  to  be  the  step- 
ping-stone to  higher  development,  there  is  much  truth 
in  the  expression. 

The  principle  of  habituation  applies  to  the  develop- 
ment of  feeling,  knowing,  and  willing,  though  it  has 
most  to  do  with  willing,  in  that  it  is  chiefly  realised 
through  acts  of  will,  and  results  in  a  more  or  less 
permanent  form  of  automatic  willing. 

The  Principle  of  Self-activity. — It  has  been  urged 
that  the  highest  value  of  the  individual  is  expressed 
by  his  character,  and  that  his  character  is  the  result 
of  his  independence,  or  rather  self-dependence,  of 
judgment,  and  of  actions  based  upon  these  judgments. 
Hence  the  educator  should  always  endeavour  to  lead 
the  individual  to  take  action  on  his  own  behalf.  This 
kind  of  action  we  speak  of  as  spontaneity,  initiation, 
and  self-activity,  in  their  higher  meanings. 

This  principle  has  been  so  generally  recognised  that 
a  number  of  educational  maxims  have  been  invented 
to  express  it,  e.^.,  educate  a  child  so  that  it  may  be 
able  to  educate  itself ;  so  govern  the  pupil  that  he  may 
learn  to  govern  himself ;  so  help  the  learner  that  he 
may  become  able  to  do  without  help ;  show  the  scholar 
how  to  find  out  knowledge  in  such  a  way  that  he  may 
be  able  to  find  out  without  being  shown ;  the  duty  of 
the  teacher  is  to  enable  the  student  to  do  without  him ; 
and,  never  do  for  a  child  what  it  can  do  for  itself. 

From  what  has  been  stated  with  regard  to  the 
principles  of  interest  and  habit,  it  will  be  seen  that 
they  have  a  very  important  relation  to  self-activity. 


138  EDUCATION 

The  former  is,  indeed,  practically  the  only  kind  of 
stimnlns  which  can  secure  a  real  and  efiEective  self- 
activity.  For  self-activity  in  its  highest  and  truest 
sense,  there  must  be  clear  and  explicit  judgment  and 
willing.  The  individual  must  realise  that  there  is 
something  which  is  worth  striving  for,  and  must,  of 
his  own  free  will  and  with  set  purpose,  make  the 
necessary  efiEorts.  This  is  the  only  kind  of  activity 
which  both  expresses  and  realises  the  self. 

Habit  is  valuable  to  self-activity  in  that  it  affords 
a  foundation  and  occasion  for  it.  When  an  habitual 
action  is  going  on  under  somewhat  new  conditions  and 
surroundings,  there  is  often  the  necessity  for  further 
judgments  with  respect  to  the  modification  of  some 
detail,  or  details,  so  as  to  ensure  the  success  of  the 
action.  As  the  self  is  largely  determined  by  the 
habits  of  the  individual,  there  will  be  every  reason  for 
it  to  take  some  interest  in  what  is  after  all  its  own 
realisation.  At  the  same  time  it  must  be  recognised 
that  habits  generally  do  more  to  supplant  self -activity 
than  to  stimulate  it.  But  the  higher  habits  express 
the  self,  for  they  are  the  most  permanent  elements 
of  it,  and  have,  as  a  rule,  been  formed  by  self- 
activity. 

Self-activity  is  the  chief  means  of  increasing  the 
strength  of  the  individual.  Mere  passive  response 
does  little  in  the  way  of  invigorating  the  self.  As  in 
the  physical  life  it  is  not  being  acted  upon,  but  the 
vigorous  acting  on  other  things,  which  hardens  and 
strengthens  the  bodily  powers,  so  in  the  mental  life  it 
is  self-activity,  and  not  the  mere  fact  of  being  acted 


GENERAL   PRINCIPLES  139 

upon  by  influences,  which  is  most  developing.  Things 
which  are  learnt  mechanically  in  early  life  are  found 
to  be  amongst  the  subjects  least  thought  of  in  later 
years. 

The  very  great  value  of  self-activity  in  developing 
the  highest  powers  of  an  individual  is  thus  expressed 
by  Kant:  "All  the  natural  endowments  of  mankind 
mnst  be  developed  little  by  little,  out  of  man  himself, 
through  his  own  eflTorts."  The  practical  importance  is 
also  urged  by  him  in  these  words  :  "  It  is  no  help  to  a 
man  that  in  his  youth  he  has  enjoyed  an  over-abun- 
dance of  motherly  tenderness,  for  later  on  he  will  have 
to  meet  all  the  more  opposition  from  all  sides,  and 
constantly  be  receiving  rebuffs  as  soon  as  he  enters  the 
business  of  the  world." 

A  strikingly  suggestive  illustration  of  the  ill-effects 
which  may  arise  through  neglecting  this  principle  of 
self-dependence  is  given  by  Professor  L.  C.  Miall, 
in  an  article  on  "  Helplessness  and  Handiness."  He 
says:  "The  new  boy  at  school!  I  look  back  forty 
years,  and  see  him  standing  in  the  midst  of  a  crowd  of 
noisy  urchins,  turned  into  the  lavatory  to  wash  for 
dinner.  He  was  dressed,  I  rather  think,  in  black,  and 
I  have  a  suspicion  that  his  father  was  a  clergyman, 
lately  dead.  I  remember  his  pale  face,  his  neat  dress 
and  hair,  and  his  white  hands 

"  The  new  boy,  when  he  finds  an  unoccupied  basin, 
goes  timidly  up  to  it,  without  taking  off  his  coat,  dips 
his  fingers  in,  and  wets  his  face.  Then  he  stands  still 
as  if  waiting  for  the  maid  to  bring  a  towel.  But  there 
is  no  maid,  and  when  he  realises  that  his  wet  face  and 


140  EDUCATION 

hands  will  not  be  dried  for  him  he  bursts  into  tears. 
The  poor  mother  who  saw  day  after  day  that  he  was 
washed  and  brushed,  and  fondly  hoped  that  she  was 
giving  him  habits  of  tidiness — how  little  she  realised 
that  her  boy  of  eight  or  nine  would  endure  the  misery 
of  the  helpless ! " 

What  have  been  termed  the  pleasures  of  pursuit,  the 
sense  of  power,  and  the  delights  of  conquest,  all  belong 
to  self-effort  only.  It  is  self-activity  which  expresses 
the  investigative  and  speculative  interests.  Discoverers, 
inventors,  and  original  thinkers,  and  doers  of  every  sort, 
are  those  who  unite  great  original,  and  highly  deve- 
loped, powers  of  mind  with  intense  and  aggressive  self- 
activity.  So  far,  therefore,  as  we  aim  at  producing  the 
highest  powers  of  mind,  we  must  encourage  and  give 
every  opportunity  for  the  exercise  of  self-eflEort. 

It  has  been  well  said  that  the  self  is  the  man.  We 
may  add  to  this  the  assertion  that  the  self  is  expressed 
in  the  general  nature  of  the  individual's  willings.  If 
this  be  so,  it  is  clear  that  the  highest  aim  of  education 
is  to  develop  the  power  of  willing  to  its  highest,  fullest, 
most  free,  and  most  effective,  form.  The  last  three 
educational  principles — ^viz.,  interest,  habituation,  and 
self-activity — are  all  concerned  with  this  aim. 

Most  thoughtful  people  would  agree  that  the  highest 
kind  of  willing  is  the  power  to  will  to  know  and  realise 
the  highest  ideals  of  the  good,  the  true,  and  the  beauti- 
ful. To  lead  the  pupil  up  to  such  a  level  should  be 
the  ideal  always  before  the  educator.  Not,  let  ns 
again  urge,  that  he  should  necessarily  try  to  develop 
the    will   through  some  particular    religious   creed  or 


GENEBAL   PRINCIPLES  141 

moral  code:  or  through  some  exclusive  view  of  a 
science :  or  by  means  of  a  special  school  of  art. 
There  are  plenty  of  general  principles,  and  points  of 
detail,  which  are  common  to  all  special  systems,  and 
amply  suflScient  for  the  educator's  purpose.  Particular 
views  on  such  points  are  matters  for  the  individual's 
own  judgment  and  conscience,  as  governing  his  own 
private  ideals  and  conduct  as  a  member  of  a  com- 
munity. 

Of  the  conditions  necessary  to  develop  such  self- 
activity,  we  have  already  said  a  good  deal  in  treating  of 
the  principles  of  interest  and  habituation.  We  may 
add  that,  when  some  power  and  skill  have  been  gained 
by  the  individual  in  a  certain  kind  of  knowledge  and 
its  use,  a  specially  arranged  opportunity  for  discovering 
— from  the  individual's  standpoint,  but  of  re-discovering 
from  the  racial  point  of  view — should  be  offered  to  the 
individual,  and  his  interest  and  curiosity  aroused  with 
regard  to  it.  The  special  arrangement  will  consist  in 
bringing  truths  or  phenomena  before  him  in  such  an 
order  of  simple  logical  progress  that  all  his  former 
experiences  and  knowledge  which  are  connected  with 
the  present  will  be  vividly  aroused,  and  his  observation 
and  judgment  led  on  so  connectedly  and  inevitably 
that,  under  ordinary  circumstances,  he  cannot  fail  to 
make  new  judgments. 

Hence  the  developing  mind  should  be  constantly 
rt^quired  to  repeat,  without  aid  or  guidance,  processes 
which  have  been  made  more  or  less  familiar.  It  should 
also  have  opportunities  and  inducements  to  work  out 
special  adaptations  of  its  powers  and  knowledge.     Easy 


142  EDUCATION 

ani  carefully  arranged  problems  should  be  given,  so 
that  after  there  has  been  guidance  in  the  method  of 
dLscovery  there  may  be  something,  however  simple  and 
slight,  in  the  way  of  original  discovery — from  the  in- 
dividnal's  standpoint.  Doling  the  later  period  of  deve- 
lopment it  is  even  desirable,  as  Milton  advised,  that  the 
yoath  should  have  a  knowledge  of  the  science  of  educa- 
tion, and  the  art  of  teaching,  so  that  he  may  the  more 
readily  and  effectively  co-operate  with  the  educator,  and 
also  be  able  to  educate  himself. 

Self-activity  is  self-realisation,  and  no  item  of  deve- 
lopment has  really  become  a  possession  and  part  of  the 
self,  in  the  fullest  sense,  unless  it  is  mainly  the  result  of 
self-effort,  and  is  also  capable  of  producing  further  self- 
activity.  This  therefore  is  the  test  of  a  sound  and 
successful  development:  that  what  is  so  developed  is 
itself  able  to  help  in  making  stUl  greater  progress.  The 
greatest  success  of  the  educating  process  is  to  make  the 
individual  realise,  care  for,  and  seek  to  further  develop, 
his  higher  self. 

We  have  pointed  out  that  willing  proceeds  from  the 
automatic  and  instinctive  to  the  self-initiated  and  re- 
flective. The  influences  used  in  developing  it  should 
therefore  be  firstly  imperative,  then  indicative,  and 
lastly  suggestive  in  character.  Imperative  at  first 
because  the  individual  has  neither  the  knowledge  nor 
power  to  choose  for  himelf,  though  his  needs  are  very 
great  and  his  person  subject  to  the  most  serious  dangers; 
but  he  is  able  to  respond  to  influences  and  to  benefit 
thereby.  Later  on,  the  influences  should  be  chiefly 
indicative,   and  only   occasionally  imperative,  because 


L 


GENERAL   PRINCIPLES  143 

the  physical  and  mental  activities  and  powers  are  getting 
stronger  and  more  skilful,  and  the  powers  of  imitation 
great,  and  also  because  the  more  he  does  for  himself  the 
better  it  is  for  his  further  development.  And,  iSnally, 
the  educating  influences  should  be  mainly  suggestive  so 
that  self-dependence  and  self- activity  may  be  developed 
to  the  greatest  possible  extent. 

By  imperative  influences  we  mean  influences  applied 
with  such  intensity  and  directness,  and  under  such 
conditions,  that  they  practically  force  their  effects  upon 
the  individual.  The  educator  would  use  his  authority 
as  such  an  influence,  and  would  say :  "  You  must  do 
so-and-so,"  "  You  must  call  this  such-and-such,"  "  You 
will  see  a  blue  colour,"  **This  feels  rough,"  &c.  Of 
course  all  these  influences  are  to  be  used  wisely,  and 
without  any  suggestion  of  harshness — which  the  name 
might  seem  to  imply.  The  influences  of  cold,  heat,  wind, 
water,  and  solids,  when  these  act  upon  the  body,  are 
imperative  in  causing  certain  of  their  qualities  to  be 
known. 

Indicative  influences  are  such  as  most  readily  and 
fnlly  give  the  material  for  supplying  what  is  needed  to 
develop  knowledge  and  power.  Thus,  if  the  educator 
is  seeking  to  develop  knowing  through  the  acquire- 
ment of  knowledge  about  a  camel  and  the  adaptation  of 
its  body  to  its  surroundings,  he  will  get  a  good  picture 
of  a  camel  in  its  liative  country,  and  a  series  of  separate 
and  enlarged  pictures,  if  necessary,  of  the  details  which 
he  wishes  to  be  noticed.  These  he  will  introduce  to  the 
learner  in  a  well-arranged  order,  and  draw  from  him, 
by  appealing  to  his  observation,  previous  knowledge, 


144  EDUCATION 

and  judgment,  as  much  as  possible  of  what  he  desires 
should  be  known.  Thus  the  influences  are  mainly  in- 
dicative in  their  character.  Some  things  will  have  to 
be  told,  but  these  should  be  as  few  as  thought  and 
ingenuity  can  possibly  make  them. 

Those  influences  are  suggestive  which  excite  the 
curiosity,  arouse  the  interest,  or  direct  the  energy  of 
the  individual  to  a  certain  matter,  and  then  leave  him 
as  nearly  as  possible  to  his  own  resources,  both  in  the 
providing  of  the  necessary  material  and  in  finding  out  how 
to  use  it  so  as  to  secure  the  desired  end.  For  example, 
if  a  boy  saw  a  toy-boat  for  the  first  time  and  was  so 
interested  in  the  sailing  of  it  that  he  very  much 
desired  to  own  one,  he  would  almost  certainly  set 
about  making  one  for  himself,  if  he  had  leamt  how 
to  use  the  necessary  tools  and  could  obtain  the  material 
required.  Again,  if  such  a  lad  was  very  curious  about 
the  working  of  a  simple  piece  of  apparatus,  he  would 
probably  find  out  what  he  wished  to  know  if  he  were 
allowed  to  experiment  with  it.  Similarly,  if  he  were 
asked  to  make  for  himself,  from  a  model,  a  piece  of 
simple  apparatus  to  illustrate  the  morrow's  lesson,  he 
would  be  likely  to  find  out  for  himself  a  way  of 
doing  it. 

It  will  be  allowed  that  knowledge  so  gained  is  likely 
to  have  a  much  more  powerful  and  lasting  efiect  upon 
the  developing  individual  than  that  which  comes  to 
him  from  being,  so  to  put  it,  fed  with  a  spoon.  He 
will  learn  many  things  in  the  way  of  observation  and 
judgment  on  his  own  actions,  &c.,  which  it  is  impossible 
for   him   to   learn   otherwise,  and   he   will  gain  more 


GENERAL  PRINCIPLES  145 

power  and  skill  than  in  any  other  way.  He  pats  the 
whole  of  his  little  self  into  the  business,  and  he  comes 
out  of  it  with  a  stronger  and  a  bigger,  because  with  a 
successfully  realised  ideal,  self. 

By  "  a  successfully  realised  ideal  self  "  is  meant  that 
a  new  form  of  the  self,  which  was  previously  looked 
upon  as  a  desirable  improvement  upon  the  then  con- 
dition of  the  self,  is  brought  about.  Thus  a  man  may 
say,  "My  ideal  of  success  is  to  write  a  novel  which 
shall  cause  a  sensation  in  the  literary  world ; "  and  he 
may  manage  to  write  it.  An  ideal,  in  this  more 
practical  sense,  is  what  one  would  wish  to  have,  do, 
or  be,  in  the  more  or  less  immediate  future. 

Character  and  individuality  are  themselves  develop- 
ing complexes,  and  hence  comes  the  essential  import- 
ance of  the  developing  of  self-activity,  which  means  self- 
dependence,  self-respect,  self-responsibility,  and  the 
power  of  self-culture. 

The  principle  of  self-activity,  like  that  of  habitua- 
tion, applies  more  particularly  to  will,  but,  for  the  most 
part,  to  will  as  concerned  in  knowing ;  and  therefore 
it  has  most  to  do  with  the  developing  of  these  two 
sides  of  the  mental  life.  It  has  also  to  do  with 
feeling,  in  that  we  can,  as  we  say,  throw  ourselves 
heartily  into  the  excitement  of  the  moment,  and  so 
cause  the  mind  to  revel  in  a  form  of  feeling;  and, 
on  the  other  hand,  we  can  by  an  eflfort  of  will  remain 
almost  impassive  to  what  would  ordinarily  exercise 
considerable  influence  upon  our  feelings. 

The  Inter-relation  of  the  Principles. — It  should  be 
carefully  noted,  as  being  entirely   in   harmony   with 

K 


146  EDUCATION 

what  we  may  call  the  central  truth  of  our  view  of 
education — viz.,  that  it  seeks  to  know  what  are  the 
principles  and  conditions  which  best  develop  mind 
according  to  its  own  proper  nature,  in  view  of  its 
greatest  possibilities — that  the  educational  principles 
which  we  have  now  set  forth  are  all,  like  the  powers  of 
mind  itself,  inter-related  and  inter-dependent. 

The  principles  of  stimulation  and  nourishment  are 
the  first  and  last  conditions  of  influence  upon  develop- 
ment. Without  them  nothing  of  permanent  value  can 
be  done.  The  principle  of  pleasure  is  the  great 
lubricating,  friction-reducing  condition,  and  should  be 
realised  in  every  one  of  the  other  principles.  It  is  a 
general  law  in  this  sense.  The  principle  of  repetition 
is  the  great  organising,  perpetuating,  strengthening,  and 
perfecting  agency.  It  also  is  a  law  which  should  be  ap- 
plied to  every  other  law  in  education.  Eepetition  fails 
to  be  effective  if  pleasure  does  not  accompany  it,  and 
pleasures  become  fuller  and  richer  when  wisely  repeated. 

Of  the  principle  of  inter-relation  and  inter-depend- 
ence nothing  more  need  be  said  in  this  connection, 
since  it  both  directly  expresses  and  reflects,  and  seeks 
to  realise,  the  nature  of  mind  in  the  conditions  of  the 
developing  influences.  The  principle  of  interest  is 
the  highest  and  most  definite  form  of  the  general 
principle  of  stimulation.  Interest  is  the  great  motive 
power  of  the  activities  which  produce  all  the  higher 
forms  of  development.  The  principle  of  habituation 
follows  from  the  principle  of  repetition.  It  is  the 
principle  which  leads  to  the  greatest  effectiveness  and 
economy  of  mental  power. 


GENERAL   PRINCIPLES  147 

The  principle  of  self-activity  is  the  highest  and  most 
fruitful  outcome  of  all  the  others.  When  self-activity 
appears  it  can  regulate,  reinforce,  and  realise — ^to  a 
greater  or  lesser  degree — all  the  developing  conditions. 
The  development  of  a  satisfactory  form  of  self -activity 
is  the  completion  of  the  purely  educative  processes,  for 
then  instruction  as  to  the  practical  application  of 
knowledge  and  power  to  the  affairs  of  life  may  begin. 

From  another  point  of  view,  the  inter-relation  be- 
comes even  more  emphasised.  The  principle  of  pleasure 
has  chiefly  to  do  with  the  sensuous  feelings,  but  also 
with  the  intellectual ;  the  principle  of  interest  is  based 
upon  feeling  and  knowing,  and  principally  affects  will- 
ing ;  the  principles  of  inter-relation,  preparation,  and 
repetition  have  most  to  do  with  knowing,  but  also 
largely  influence  willing;  whilst  the  principles  of  stioiu- 
lation,  nourishment,  and  self-activity  affect  the  whole 
mind  generally.  Thus  it  appears  that  the  principles 
involved  all,  more  or  less,  influence  those  mind  elements 
of  feeling,  knowing,  and  willing,  which  constitute  the 
mental  unity.  It  follows,  therefore,  that  the  principles 
themselves  must  be  inter- dependent  and  united. 

Some  General  Eemarks. — Let  us,  here,  and  constantly, 
remind  ourselves  that  educational  principles  besides 
being  based  upon  psychological  truths  which  have  been 
arrived  at  by  observation,  experiment,  and  reflection, 
have  also  themselves  been  more  or  less  fully  discovered, 
in  their  empirical  or  experiential  form,  by  observation, 
experiment,  and  reflection  upon  the  developing  being 
whilst  under  the  influences  of  educating  processes. 
The  fullest  possible  evidence  of  the  entirely  practical 


148  EDUCATION 

element  of  proof,  as  to  the  soundness  of  the  principles, 
is  found  in  the  history  of  education,  and  in  the  actaal 
systems  and  methods  at  present  used  in  our  schools. 

A  most  essential  point  for  the  young  student  to  insist 
upon  is  that  both  tRe  psychological  basis,  and  the  prac- 
tical soundness,  of  the  principles  ought  to  be  more  or 
less  fully  demonstrable,  and  demonstrated,  from  the 
concrete  point  of  view.  In  other  words,  the  intelligent 
learner  ought  to  be  able,  under  proper  guidance  and 
after  reasonable  endeavour,  to  recognise  the  mind 
elements  and  their  activities  in  his  own  mental  life,  and 
the  signs  of  their  workings  in  the  case  of  others ;  also, 
he  should  be  able  to  observe  the  application,  and  esti- 
mate the  effect,  of  the  principles,  as  used  in  the  actual 
education  of  the  young. 

Not  only  ought  he  to  be  able  to  recognise  the  elements 
of  the  principles  and  their  activities  as  involved  in  the 
work  of  those  who  are  educating  and  being  educated, 
but,  to  apply  the  principle  of  self-activity  to  his  own 
case,  he  should  learn  how  to  exemplify  them  in  educa- 
tional method,  and  realise  them  in  educational  prac- 
tice. In  other  words,  he  must  regard  as  part  of 
the  proper  study  of  education  the  observation  and 
analysis  of  the  work  of  a  skilled  educator,  and  the 
endeavour  to  imitate  and  originate  similar  work  of  his 
own.  That  is  to  say,  what  are  called  model-lessons  and 
criticism-lessons  are  the  laboratory  work,  and  an  in- 
dispensable part,  of  the  study  of  education. 

No  better  advice  could  be  given  to  young  students  of 
education  than  to  take  "  a  child,  and  set  him  in  the 
midst  of  them."     With  the  guidance  which  the  experi- 


GENERAL   PRINCIPLES  149 

ence  and  knowledge  of  others  can  give  them,  they  may 
hope,  through  a  study  of  children,  to  obtain  a  really 
scientific  grasp  of  educational  principles,  but  not  other* 
wise. 

Two  cautions  may  be  useful  to  the  beginner  in  helping 
him  to  avoid  some  misconceptions.  Firstly,  he  should 
be  very  careful  not  to  attempt  to  carry  further  than  the 
immediate  context  demands  anything  which  is  given  for 
the  purpose  of  illustrating  the  general  argument.  He 
must  remember  that  every  example  limps,  as  the  proverb 
says ;  and  it  is,  therefore,  especially  dangerous  for  a 
beginner  to  press  an  illustration.  Later  on  he  may  be 
able  to  extend  or  amend  it.  Secondly,  whenever  we 
speak  of  "  fundamental  elements,"  we  mean  those  which 
are  ultimate  from  the  point  of  view  of  empirical  science. 
Whatever  philosophy  or  metaphysics — the  transcen- 
dental sciences — ^may  have  to  say  further  is  another 
matter. 

With  respect  to  illustrations  it  must  be  remembered 
that  they  are  not  proofs.  The  justifying  evidence  of  a 
truth,  or  principle,  must  be  found  in  the  facts  of  the 
case,  or  they  are  not  likely  to  be  provided  in  an  illus- 
trative example. 

Another  word  of  warning  may  be  given  to  those  who 
take  up  the  study  of  the  science  of  education  after  a 
considerable  amount  of  practical  experience  in  teaching. 
Such  are  very  often  inclined  to  say  :  "  This  may  be  all 
very  well  in  theory,  but  it  will  not  hold  in  practice." 
Now,  true  science  is,  and  can  be,  nothing  more  than  the 
fullest  expression  of  our  deepest  knowledge  of  things. 
Such  a  remark  as  the  above,  therefore,  implies  that  the 


150  EDUCATION 

theory  is  false ;  for,  if  it  be  true,  it  must  hold  in  prac- 
tice, since  this  is  the  final  and  conclusive  test  of  its 
validity. 

If  the  objector  still  persists  that  he  has  found  that 
such-and-such  a  principle  does  not  hold  in  practice,  or 
that  its  very  opposite  does,  then  either  the  principle  is 
false,  or  he  has  misunderstood  the  facts  to  which  he 
appeals.  Thus  a  result  which  he  attributes  to  a  certain 
condition  of  things  may  really  have  been  produced  in 
spite  of  it,  through  his  own,  or  the  pupil's,  earnestness, 
perseverance,  and  power. 

That  the  principles  do,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  hold  in 
practice  is  shown  by  the  methods  and  maxims  of  the 
great-est  teachers.  These  have  arrived  at  the  same  con- 
clusions, in  a  more  or  less  implicit  form,  from  the  prac- 
tical necessities  and  accidental  successes  of  intelligent 
work,  that  the  scientist  has  from  a  rational  investigation 
of  the  phenomena  which  they  have  had  to  deal  with. 

Erasmus  (1467- 1536),  whose  writings  are  based  on 
practical  experience  as  a  teacher,  says :  "  We  learn  with 
great  willingness  from  those  we  love  ;  there  are  children 
who  would  be  killed  sooner  than  made  better  by  blows : 
by  mildness  and  kind  admonitions,  one  may  make  of 
them  whatever  he  will.  Drill  in  reading  and  writing  is 
a  little  bit  tiresome,  and  the  teacher  will  ingeniously 
palliate  the  tedium  by  the  artifice  of  an  attractive 
method;  the  ancients  moulded  toothsome  dainties  into 
the  forms  of  letters,  and  thus,  as  it  were,  made  children 
swallow  the  alphabet."  All  these  maxims  are  based  on 
the  principle  of  pleasure. 

The  same  writer  says  :  **  As  the  body  in  infant  years 


GENERAL  PKINCIPLES  151 

is  nourished  by  little  portions  distributed  at  intervals, 
so  should  the  mind  of  the  child  be  nurtured  by  items  of 
knowledge,  adapted  to  its  weakness,  and  distributed 
little  by  little"  (Compayre,  "History  of  Pedagogy"). 
Here  we  have  the  principle  of  nourishment  stated,  and 
that  of  stimulation  implied. 

Eatke's  (i  S71-1635)  great  rule  was :  "  In  everything 
we  should  follow  the  order  of  nature.  There  is  a  certain 
natural  sequence  along  which  the  human  intelligence 
moves  in  acquiring  knowledge.  This  sequence  must  be 
studied,  and  instruction  must  be  based  on  the  know- 
ledge of  it  "  (Quick,  "  Educational  Reformers  ").  Thus 
the  essentially  practical  man  clearly  indicates  the 
principle  of  inter-relation  and  inter-dependence. 

**  Repetitio  mater  studiorum,"  said  the  Jesuits,  who 
had  probably  the  most  perfect  practical  system  of 
teaching  of  the  sixteenth  century.  Comenius  (1592— 
1 671),  himself  a  man  of  wide  experience  as  a  teacher, 
says :  "  Repetitio  memorisB  pater  et  mater  est."  Again 
and  again  we  find  the  great  teachers  insisting  upon  the 
principle  of  repetition. 

Quaint  old  Roger  Ascham  (1515-1602),  when  speak- 
ing of  the  order  of  teaching  which  the  master  should 
pursue  in  the  case  of  the  epistles  of  Cicero,  says: 
"  First,  let  him  teach  the  childe,  cheerfullie  and  plainlie, 
the  cause  and  matter  of  the  letter  ;  then,  let  him  con- 
strue it  into  English,  so  oft,  as  the  childe  male  easilie 
Carrie  awaie  the  understanding  of  it."  So  he  points  out 
the  need  of  observing  the  principle  of  preparation. 

Quintillian  (35-95  a.d.)  says:  *'The  desire  of  learn- 
ing depends  upon  the  will,  which  you  are  not  able  to 


152  EDUCATION 

compel."  In  other  words,  the  only  influence  which 
affects  the  will,  and  so  causes  the  mind  to  receive  and 
retain,  is  a  suflScient  motive  in  the  individual.  So  the 
principle  of  interest  is  thus  early  stated.     , 

"  What  you  think  necessary  for  them  to  do,  settle  in 
them  by  an  indispensable  practice,  as  often  as  the  occa- 
sion returns ;  and,  if  it  be  possible,  make  occasions. 
This  will  beget  habits  in  them  which,  being  once  esta- 
blished, operate  of  themselves  easily  and  naturally, 
without  the  assistance  of  memory."  Thus  Locke,  the 
great  philosopher,  who  was  also  a  practical  teacher, 
indicates  the  value  of  the  principle  of  habituation. 

Not  to  omit  the  moderns,  we  may  quote  Dr.  Fitch, 
who  urges  that  "  some  of  the  best  work  of  our  own  lives 

has  taken  the  form  of  self  tuition Consider,  too, 

how  precious  and  abiding  knowledge  won  by  our  own 
efforts  always  is."  Dr.  Abbott  says:  "We  remember 
best  ....  those  things  which  (1)  present  themselves 
to  us  from  the  first  in  the  most  interesting  or  incisive 
form,  or  (2)  are  impressed  by  constant  repetition."  He 
also  advises  that,  '^  Before  beginning  to  teach  any  sub- 
ject, the  teacher  should  endeavour  to  excite  the  pnpil's 
interest  by  conversations  and  stories  illustrating  the 
utility  of  it."  Canon  Daniel  insists  that  "Pleasure 
accompanies  the  appropriate  exercise  of  every  faculty 

we  possess The  art  of  the  teacher  is  to  find  out 

appropriate  exercises." 

Examples  of  this  kind  might  be  easily  multiplied, 
but  suflScient  have  been  given  to  show  that  experience 
both  leads  to  and  reflects  true  theory.  The  value  of  a 
study  of  the  history  of  education  is  also  shown. 


CHAPTEE  IV 

THE  GENBRAJi  CHARACTERISTICS  OF  MENTAL 
DEVELOPMENT 

The  fact  of  the  separate  stages  of  growth  and  develop- 
ment in  the  human  being  is  very  clearly  and  definitely 
recognised  in  common  language.  When  we  speak  of 
babyhood,  childhood,  youth,  and  manhood,  or  woman- 
hood, we  are  marking  off  the  characteristic  stages 
through  which  the  mental  and  bodily  powers  pass. 
There  is  also  a  very  general  agreement  as  to  some  of 
the  chief  qualities  which  distinguish  these  from  each 
other  in  the  ordinary  individual.  It  is  as  usual  as  it 
is  true  to  speak  of  the  helplessness,  innocence,  guile- 
lessness,  and  dependence  of  the  baby ;  the  trustfulness, 
artlessness,  inquisitiveness,  plasticity,  volatility,  and 
receptiveness  of  the  child;  and  the  vigour,  rashness, 
impetuosity,  self-assurance,  and  obstinacy  of  youth. 
In  the  man  or  woman  these  qualities  are  regarded  as 
modified  and  under  the  control  of  an  informed  and 
capable  judgment,  which  is  taken  as  the  dominating 
factor  in  adult  life. 

Not  only  are  these  stages  of  development  recognised 
as  thus  broadly  marked  off  from  each  other,  but  their 
dependence  and  continuity  is  insisted  on  in  such  pro- 


154  EDUCATION 

verbial  sayings  as :  **  the  child  is  father  of  the  man, " 
"  as  the  twig  is  bent  the  tree  's  inclined, "  "  train  up  a 
child  in  the  way  he  should  go,  and  when  he  is  old  he 
will  not  depart  from  it. " 

Such  facts  are  of  the  very  greatest  interest  and  value 
to  the  educationist,  for  it  is  this  development  which  he 
desires  to  know  the  nature  and  laws  of.  We  must, 
therefore,  try  to  understand  the  matter  from  a  strictly 
scientific  point  of  view.  This  again  brings  us  to 
psychology  as  a  basis  of  educational  principles. 

Since  we  hold  that  the  mind  as  a  whole  can  be  con- 
sidered to  have  three  great  elements,  viz.,  feeling, 
knowing,  and  willing,  what  we  want  now  to  know  is 
whether  these  develop  in  any  definite  and  distinct 
manner,  and,   if  so,  how  they  develop. 

Observation  has  shown  that  there  is  an  obvious  and 
well  defined  line  of  mental  development,  both  as  to  the 
mind  as  a  whole,  and  with  regard  to  the  three  mind- 
elements.  We  have  already  pointed  out  that  though 
the  three  great  mental  elements  are  always  present  in 
every  act  of  consciousness,  yet  they  are  present  in 
unequal  degrees,  as  a  rule.  Sometimes  one  element 
-strongly  predominates,  sometimes  another.  It  is  in 
these  two  senses  that  we  speak  of  an  order  of  mental 
development,  viz. ,  in  the  sense  that,  at  certain  periods 
in  the  life  of  the  individual  the  general  character  of 
the  mind  varies,  and  also  that  one  of  the  elements 
develops  at  a  greater  rate,  i.  e, ,  more  extensively  and 
intensely  than  the  others.  It  is  always  true  that  the 
general  and  special  features  are  all  developing. 

One  point  should  be  carefully  noticed.     Although  it 


MENTAL  DEVELOPMENT  155 

is  impossible  to  say  at  what  particular  point  of  time 
one  kind  of  development  actually  does,  or  is  likely  to, 
begin,  yet  we  are  justified  in  saying  that,  as  a  rule,  a 
certain  kind  of  development  will  take  place  about  the 
period  within  certain  years  of  the  ordinary  individual's 
life.  Just  as  in  the  bodily  growth  there  is  a  period 
when  the  individual  is  only  able  to  receive  and  assimi- 
late the  nourishment  which  is  prepared  for,  and  ad- 
ministered to,  it  I  then  a  period  in  which  it  is  able  to 
do  something  towards  preparing  its  own  food,  and  to 
entirely  manage  the  feeding  operations ;  and  finally  the 
time  when  it  is  able  to  provide  as  well  as  prepare  and 
consume  its  food :  so  in  the  mental  life  there  is  pro- 
gress from  dependence  to  independence. 

It  is  generally  agreed  that  the  three  chief  stages  of 
mental  development  may,  broadly  speaking,  be  re- 
garded as  taking  place  within  successive  periods  of 
seven  years,  viz. ,  from  birth  to  the  seventh  year,  from 
the  seventh  to  the  fourteenth  year,  and  from  the  four- 
teenth to  the  twenty-first  year.  But  this  view  of  the 
matter  must  be  regarded  with  considerable  caution, 
and  only  accepted  as  a  more  or  less  trustworthy 
account  of  the  probable  development,  under  ordinarily 
favourable  conditions,  of  an  individual  with  the  average 
amount  of  mental  and  physical  vigour  and  capacity. 

The  original  powers  and  peculiarities  with  which 
a  person  begins  life,  the  influences  which  affect  him, 
and  the  conditions  by  which  he  is  surrounded,  are  so 
various  and  so  changing  that  very  numerous  and  con- 
siderable differences  in  the  detail  of  development  are 
inevitable.     At  the  same  time  the  great  general  char- 


156  EDUCATION 

acteristics  of  the  human  nature  and  order  of  develop- 
ment in  all  indiYiduals  will  closely  resemble  each  other. 
Were  this  not  so,  any  idea  of  human  beings  as  a  class, 
or  scientific  knowledge  of  their  nature  and  laws  as  a 
race,  would  be  impossible.  A  separate  science  for  each 
individual  would  have  to  be  made. 

The  Oeneral  Nature  of  Mental  Development  —  As  we 
have  already  suggested  there  is  first  the  period  of 
almost  pure  receptivity  and  reproduction,  when  the 
mind  simply  receives  and  takes  accoimt  of,  in  a  more  or 
less  vague  or  definite  manner,  the  influences  which  act 
upon  it,  and  thus  nourishes,  strengthens,  and,  to  a 
limited  extent,  develops  itself.  This  stage  may  be 
called  the  vegetative  stage. 

Then  follows  the  stage  in  which  the  mental  powers 
begin  to  take  definite  shape  and  form,  and  the  mind 
appears  as  an  active  agent  in  the  general  complex  of 
which  it  is  a  part.  From  being  an  almost  wholly  pas- 
sive object,  it  becomes  an  active  influence  in  the  world 
of  things.  But  this  only  in  a  direct  and  concrete  way, 
for  there  are  as  yet  none  of  the  more  subtle,  profound, 
and  powerful  activities  of  the  higher  reason.  Mind 
has,  so  to  speak,  learpt  to  run  alone.  It  is  now  an  ex- 
ploring as  well  as  a  receiving  organ,  and  it  receives  in  a 
much  more  extensive  and  appreciative  way.  It  learns 
to  know,  in  a  direct  and  practical  sense,  the  various 
nlgt!ct3  by  which  it  is  surrounded.  We  may  call  this 
the  Htage  of  practical  knowing. 

When  practical  knowledge  has  reached  to  a  some- 
what considerable  degree  of  fulness  and  precision,  then 
the  mind  begins  to  study  itself,  through  reflecting  upon 


MENTAL   DEVELOPMENT  157 

its  ideas  and  experiences,  and  thus  obtains  a  still  higher 
kind  of  knowledge.  We  esteem  it  an  advance  in  know- 
ledge when  we  distinguish  between  our  thoughts  of 
tilings  and  the  things  themseWes,  and  afterwards  get 
to  know  about  our  thoughts  in  a  similar  manner  to  that 
in  which  we  know  about  other  objects.  It  is  thus  that 
science  and  philosophy  come  into  existence.  This  may 
be  called  the  stage  of  rational  knowing. 

The  difference  between  practical  knowing  and  rational 
knowing  is  well  illustrated  by  the  difference  between 
the  knowledge  which  the  artisan  has,  who  deals  with 
materials  according  to  traditional  methods  and  rule-of- 
thumb  reasons,  and  the  knowledge  which  the  scientist 
has,  who  is  guided  by  the  nature  of  the  material  with 
which  he  is  dealing,  and  the  general  laws  which  are 
true  of  such  things. 

These  three  stages  of  general  mental  development 
roughly  correspond  to  the  periods  of  babyhood,  child- 
hood (including  youth),  and  manhood.  They  are  as 
true  of  the  race  as  of  the  individual.  There  is  the 
primitive  savage  who  is  almost  purely  animal  in  his 
mode  of  life,  and  is  in  the  vegetative  stage ;  then  there 
is  the  semi-civilised  man,  who  has  developed  the 
domestic  arts  and  manafactures  to  a  very  considerable 
extent,  and  has  an  extensive  store  of  practical  know- 
ledge ;  and,  finally,  we  have  the  civilised  man,  who  has 
developed  the  sciences  and  philosophies.  Of  course 
these  stages  more  or  less  overlap,  but  they  are  definitely 
marked  off  from  each  other  in  a  broad  and  general 
sense. 

Plato,   long    ago,    drew    attention   to  this   general 


158  EDUCATION 

movement  from  the  more  purely  sensuous  to  the  more 
purely  rational.  He  writes  thus :  "  The  soul  .... 
is  at  first  without  intelligence ;  but  when  the  flood  of 
growth  and  nutriment  abates,  and  the  courses  of  the 
soul,  calming  down,  go  their  own  way,  and  become 
steadier  as  time  goes  on,  then  the  several  circles  return 
to  the  natural  form  ....  and  make  the  possessor  of 
them  to  become  a  rational  being  "  (Dr.  Jowett's  trans- 
lation). 

Not  only  does  the  above  apply  to  the  whole  life  of  the 
individual  and  the  race,  but  it  also  applies  to  each  dis- 
tinct line  of  development  in  the  race  and  the  individual. 
For  example,  in  language  the  race  doubtless  began  by 
imitating  natural  sounds  and  motions,  thus  making  a 
gesture  language  consisting  of  sounds  and  motions. 
Thus  the  sounds  "  quack,  quack,"  and  the  motion  of 
the  arms  like  the  moving  of  wings,  would  mean  a  fly- 
ing duck.  This  is  the  purely  receptive  and  reproductive 
stage.  Then  followed  the  period  in  which  the  practical 
use  of  language  is  largely  developed,  and  in  which  a 
written  language — at  first  largely  pictorial — was  pro- 
duced. And  finally  there  came  the  stage  when  men 
investigated  the  origin,  nature,  and  laws  of  language, 
as  such,  and  thus  arrived  at  a  science  and  philosophy  of 
language. 

Similarly  the  individual  at  first  simply  imitates  the 
words  and  sentences  which  are  taught  to  him.  Later 
on  he  is  able  to  use  language  freely,  and  to  invent  his 
own  combinations  for  practical  purposes.  And  not  till 
after  this  is  he  well  prepared  for  the  study  of  the 
grammar  and  philology  of  a  language. 


MENTAL   DEVELOPMENT  159 

It  is  important  to  bear  in  mind  that  these  stages 
grow  unto  each  other  by  a  gradual  increase  in  the 
proportion  of  the  new  element  and  a  corresponding 
proportionate  decrease — there  is  an  actual  increase — of 
the  dominance  of  the  previously  predominant  element. 
Thus,  if  we  take  the  first  seven  years  of  the  individual's 
life  as  covering  the  first  stage,  then  during  the  sixth 
and  seventh  year  the  more  purely  receptive  and  repro- 
ductive elements  are  rapidly  becoming  subordinate, 
whilst  practical  mastery  and  knowledge  are  rapidly 
becoming  predominant.  This  kind  of  movement  is 
always  true  of  stages  of  development,  and  unless  it 
is  fully  recognised  serious  misconceptions  may  arise. 

There  are  what  we  may  term  the  individual  elements 
of  general  development.  The  totals  which  make  up  the 
great  stages  of  mental  progress  are  themselves  com- 
posed of  individual  items  of  development.  In  the  case 
of  each  separate  power  of  mind  there  is  a  more  or  less 
constant  and  steady  increase  of  its  extent  and  strength: 
of  the  ease,  quickness,  accuracy  and  completeness  with 
which  it  acts :  and  of  its  ability  to  do  more  difficult, 
complex,  and  profound  work.  That  which  is  at  first 
slow  and  laborious,  becomes  rapid  and  easy,  and  later 
on  is  done  with  great  skill  and  finish.  When  indi- 
vidual powers  have  so  developed  they  are  likely  to 
become  habitual.  If  they  do  they  will  require  the 
minimum  of  attention  and  effort,  and  will  thus  set  free 
energy  and  skill  with  which  further  progress  may  be 
made. 

We  will  now  consider  in  detail  each  of  the  three 
great  stages  in  the  development  of  the  mind-elements. 


160  EDUCATION 

For  reasons  which  will  appear  in  the  discussions  we 
shall  take  the  view  that  feeling  is  the  first  to  pre- 
dominantly develop,  then  knowing,  and  lastly  willing. 
It  will  be  taken  for  granted  that  sound  and  vigorous 
individuals  under  favourable  conditions  are  always 
referred  to. 

The  Development  of  Feeling. — If  it  be  true  that  the 
early  part  of  the  life  of  an  individual  is  chiefly  taken 
up  with  nutrition  and  mere  growth,  then  it  is  clear 
that  its  knowing  activities  will  be  mainly  directed  to 
distinguishing  the  difierent  pleasurable  and  painful 
effects  of  its  experiences.  This  will,  at  first,  only  apply 
to  the  elements  of  pure  feeling,  for  at  the  very  begin- 
ning it  has  nothing  to  help  it  to  form  even  very  im- 
plicitly concrete  judgments  about  anything  else.  The 
baby  only  knows  whether  its  feelings  are  pleasant  or 
otherwise,  and  gives  immediate  expression  to  this  by 
its  cryings  or  croonings. 

Perhaps  it  would  be  better  to  say  that  the  baby 
practically  realises  that  it  feels — although  this  is  not  a 
very  happy  description — rather  than  that  it  knows  what 
it  feels.  The  whole  matter  is  briefly  but  pi-obably  fully 
expressed  from  the  baby's  point  of  view  by  simply  say- 
ing that  its  mental  life  consists  chiefly  of  feelings. 

Early  infancy  is  almost  wholly  taken  up  with  the 
activity  and  development  of  the  senses.  The  child 
realises,  to  a  limited  extent,  the  pleasure-giving  powers 
of  its  senses,  and  uses  them  to  an  almost  unlimited 
extent.  Its  restless  activity  whilst  awake  is  an  evi- 
dence of  its  receptive  eagerness.  Its  habit  of  carrying 
everything  to  its  mouth  and  trying  to  eat  it,  is  doubt- 


I 


MENTAL   DEVELOPMENT  161 

less  due  to  its  desire  for  the  pleasures  of  taste,  which 
is  the  sense  whereby  it  gets  most  of  its  very  earliest 
experiences. 

This  period  of  receptivity  is  of  the  utmost  import- 
ance for  the  future  life,  for  now  the  individual  is 
receiving  those  elements  of  experience  upon  which  all 
later  developments  are  largely  dependent.  To  illus- 
trate this  by  an  extreme  example  :  it  is  not  diflScult  to 
realise  that  if  a  healthy  child  were  invariably  kept  in 
darkness  or  intense  light  during  the  first  three  years  of 
its  life,  this  would  have  a  very  serious  if  not  fatal  effect 
upon  the  eye,  and  through  it  upon  the  general  mental 
and  physical  development  The  same  truth  will  hold 
in  other  matters  and  degrees.  With  regard  to  this 
point  Dr.  Hoffding  speaks  of  ''  the  predominating  im- 
portance of  the  vegetative  life." 

It  is  not  the  case  that  very  great  refinement  is  neces- 
sary in  the  conditions  of  life  during  this  period,  but 
very  great  care  should  be  taken  to  prevent  excess  or 
defect  in  the  influences  which  affect  the  child.  Also  it 
is  important  that  all  the  most  valuable  kinds  of  in- 
fluences should  systematically  affect  it.  Each  of  the 
senses  should  be  methodically  exercised.  This  will 
only  require  a  little  care  and  judgment  in  arranging  the 
surroundings  and  playthings  of  the  child. 

The  infant  is  all  action  and  growth,  and  its  feeling 
and  senses  are  peculiarly  acute,  intense,  and  suscept- 
ible. As  Dr.  Hoffding  remarks :  "  Where  adults  merely 
tremble,  children  fall  into  convulsions."  Hence  the  child 
is  either  all  tears  or  all  smiles ;  it  is  generally  either 
crying  or  laughing.     There  is  in  early  childhood  a  very 

L 


162  EDUCATION 

rapid  and  proportionally  great  growth  of  body  and 
mind,  and  it  is  this  which  demands  that  the  life  shall 
be  predominantly  vegetative  and  full  of  feeling.  The 
child  that  is  defective  in  vital  energy  is  languid  and 
duU,  and  consequently  slow  in  its  growth.  The  vegeta- 
tive element  must,  therefore,  be  recognised,  stimulated, 
nourished,  and  carefully  exercised. 

Feeling  is  of  course,  during  this  early  period  con- 
nected almost  wholly  with  sensations.  In  other  words 
it  is  the  sensuous  feelings  which  are  predominantly 
developed.  The  intellectual  or  aesthetic  feelings  are 
only  developed  to  a  very  limited  extent. 

All  the  experiences  are,  for  the  most  part,  direct  and 
concrete  at  this  period  of  life.  There  is  comparatively 
little  of  that  reflective  activity  of  consciousness  which 
examines  its  own  experiences  and  finds  more  in  them 
than  is  given  by  the  immediate  response  of  the  mind. 
It  is  a  time  when  sensations  are  the  chief  element  in 
life,  and  when  the  mind  is  most  occupied  with  taking 
account  of  them. 

These  feelings  are  doubtless,  at  first,  very  vague  and 
indefinite,  but  they  soon  become  more  or  less  sharply 
marked  off  from  each  other.  The  first  experiences  of 
the  different  feelings  are  probably  somewhat  similar  in 
their  effect  upon  the  mind  to  that  of  a  blaze  of  light 
upon  the  ey<*s.  There  is  a  general  disturbance,  and  a 
keen  sense  of  feeliug,  but  very  little  else.  Later  on 
there  would  come  some  notion  of  the  difference  between 
one  kind  of  feeling  and  another,  and  some  idea  of  con- 
necting different  feelings  with  different  conditions  of 
the  surroundings.     Thus  feelings  would  be  classified, 


MENTAL  DEVELOPMENT  163 

in  an  elementary  way,  and  in  so  far  as  they  were  asso- 
ciated, however  mistakenly,  with  objects,  the  objects 
would  also  be  more  or  less  classified. 

In  the  earliest  years  of  the  child's  life,  its  intense 
susceptibility  to  feeling  is  such  that  its  experiences 
produce  emotions  and  passions  rather  than  feelings 
proper.  This  is  specially  shown  in  the  case  of  spoilt 
children  who  sometimes  scream  themselves  into  con- 
vulsions if  they  do  not  get  exactly  what  they  wish. 
Children,  as  a  rule,  perform  most  of  their  actions  with 
great  vigour  and  intensity,  and  often  with  excessive 
energy.  Doubtless  this  is  due  to  the  ease  with  which 
their  feelings  are  excited  to  a  high  state  of  tension. 

Bright  colours,  loud  noises,  and  rapid  movements,  all 
seem  to  greatly  delight  the  young  child.  Only  con- 
stant change  and  variety  are  able  to  satisfy  its  restless 
activity  and  its  practically  unlimited  appetite  for  sense 
experiences.  It  is  by  no  means  nice  or  delicate  in  its 
mental  tastes,  but  eagerly  devours  whatever  it  can 
obtain.  Indeed  its  mental  appetite  is  like  to  its  bodily : 
as  insatiable  as  indiscriminate. 

The  feelings  of  fear,  surprise,  joy,  disappointment, 
change,  harmony,  and  so  on,  are  very  acute  and  intense, 
in  so  far  as  as  they  are  practically  involved  in  concrete 
experiences.  There  are  the  beginnings  of  the  higher 
forms  of  feelings,  e.g,j  of  love  in  the  selfish  attachment 
to  what  has  constantly  satisfied  the  wants :  of  trust,  in 
the  primitive  credulity  of  inexperience  and  ignorance  : 
and  of  respect,  in  the  deference  which  helplessness 
must  pay  to  strength. 

Such  are  the  chief  characteristics  of  the  child  during 


164  EDUCATION 

its  first  three  years  of  existence.  During  this  period  it 
probably  receives  a  greater  number  of  impressions  and 
fresh  experiences  than  during  any  other  three  years  of 
its  whole  life.  This  may  be  called  the  earliest  material- 
collecting  time,  the  great  importance  of  which  is  due 
to  the  fact  that,  here  as  elsewhere,  first  impressions  are 
likely  to  prove  very  lasting  and  leavening. 

Feeling  has  reached  a  higher  stage  of  development, 
when  the  feeling  element  in  an  experience  is  definite 
and  distinct  for  the  mind.  It  is  then  the  case  that  the 
mind  grasps  the  feeling  rather  than  that  the  feeling 
takes  possession  of  the  mind.  When  this  is  so  the 
feeling  becomes  more  significant,  for  the  mind  realises 
something  more  than  the  element  of  pleasure  or  pain. 
There  is  an  appreciation  of  what  we  may  call  the  feel- 
ing-tone :  the  difference  between  the  feelings  of 
hunger,  refreshment,  thirst,  sweetness,  sourness,  tired- 
ness, vigour,  and  so  on. 

That  feelings  are  thus  marked  off  from  each  other  is, 
of  course,  due  to  the  power  of  knowing.  The  knowing 
element  helps  to  still  further  develop  the  classifying  of 
feelings  by  bringing  about  the  association  of  certain 
feelings  with  the  conditions  and  objects  which  cause 
them.  The  power  of  willing,  as  exercised  in  the  con- 
trol of  the  feelings,  is  most  helpful  to  the  development 
of  feeling,  by  preventing  the  loss  of  significance  in 
the  excess  of  general  disturbance. 

Above  all,  progress  in  the  growth  and  development 
of  feeling  is  due  to  the  growth  and  development  of  the 
body.  As  the  powers  and  activities  of  the  sense 
organs  increase,  so  the  mind  is  supplied  more  freely 


MENTAL   DEVELOPMENT  165 

and  fully  with  all  kinds  of  sensations ;  and  upon  the 
quality  and  quantity  of  this  nourishment  and  exercise 
depends  the  mental  advance.  The  health  and  activity 
of  the  body  are  of  the  most  essential  importance  in  this 
respect.  A  feeble  or  inactive  body  will  mean  a  more 
or  less  undeveloped  mind. 

There  is,  however,  something  more  than  an  extremely 
powerful  and  active  receptivity  in  the  mental  life  of  the 
child.  Willing  is  doing  its  work  in  the  form  of  simple 
and  direct  attention.  Similar  feelings  are  aroused  by 
similar  experiences,  and  the  mind  not  only  responds  in 
a  like  manner  to  like  sensations,  but  it  becomes  aware 
that  this  is  the  case.  In  other  words,  knowing  is  being 
developed  through  the  classification  of  feelings.  So 
also  is  willing,  for  the  attention  gradually  becomes 
more  sustained  and  intense  in  its  working.  Thus  feel- 
ings are  classified  and  known,  in  an  elementary  and 
direct  sense. 

Knowing  may  be  said  to  be  of  a  very  superficial 
nature  at  this  stage,  and  might  be  compared  with  the 
knowledge  that  an  adult  has  of  things  through  mere 
signs.  A  bookseller's  assistant  may  know  a  great  many 
books,  written  in  languages  he  is  quite  ignorant  of,  by 
their  titles ;  but,  though  he  would  be  able  to  pick  them 
out  without  hesitation  or  mistake,  they  would  have  no 
further  meaning  for  him. 

The  child's  knowledge  of  things  through  sensation  is, 
at  first,  of  this  nature,  but  after  a  time  it  becomes  able 
to  relate  to  one  another  its  various  experiences  of  the 
same  object,  and  thus  begins  to  form  collective  ideas  of  a 
thing,  and  of  things,  in  a  concrete  and  practictU  sense. 


166  EDUCATION 

It  will  learn  to  think  of  its  mother  not  only  as  a  woman 
with  the  attributes  of  a  woman — so  far  as  it  knows  of 
them — but  as  having  special  relations  of  practical  con- 
trol, ministration,  and  guidance,  with  regard  to  its  own 
life  and  the  lives  of  those  of  the  same  family.  And  it 
may  even  go  so  far  as  to  begin  to  form  some  general, 
though  vague  and  very  incomplete,  idea  of  what  adults 
understand  by  motherhood. 

Some  cautions  are  necessary  here.  It  is  often  said 
that  the  child  has  a  particularly  strong  power  of  imagina- 
tion, and  is,  therefore,  able  to  picture  to  itself  all  sorts 
of  things  and  conditions  which  it  has  never  experienced. 
Hence  its  delight  in  fairy  tales,  and  its  habit  of  attribut- 
ing human  powers  and  qualities  to  such  objects  as  dolls 
and  dogs. 

Now,  if  the  phrase  **  power  of  imagination  "  is  to  be 
understood  in  the  same  sense  as  when  applied  to  adults, 
the  above  view  is  almost  certainly  mistaken.  In  the 
first  place,  it  assumes  a  power  of  abstract  and  reflective 
thought  in  the  child  which  there  is  every  evidence  to 
show  is  absent.  Next,  if  the  behaviour  of  the  child  be 
carefully  observed,  it  will  be  seen  that  there  is  real 
belief  behind  what  is  called  its  imagining.  It  will  cry 
as  seriously  about  what  it  thinks  to  be  an  injury  to  its 
doll,  as  about  its  own  suflferings.  It  cannot  discriminate 
at  first,  between  that  which  superficially  resembles  a 
human  being  and  that  which  is  really  human.  It  is 
serioas  but  utterly  wrong  judgment  based  upon  pro- 
found ignorance,  which  is  mistaken  for  imagination  in 
children. 

Again,  children  soon  learn  to  ask  if  the  tales  which 


MENTAL   DEVELOPMENT  167 

are  told  them  are  tme  ;  and  many  develop  a  great  con- 
tempt for  mere  fairy  tales  whilst  retaining  all  their 
liking  for  stories  of  real  adventure.  It  is  the  child's 
love  of  novelty  which  makes  it  so  eager  to  hear  of 
strange  things,  whilst  its  complete  ignorance,  from  the 
rational  and  critical  point  of  view,  renders  it  incapable 
of  making  choice  of  what  to  accept  and  what  to  reject. 
It  therefore  believes  everything  which  affects  its  miad 
in  a  definite  and  significant  manner.  This  is  what  Dr. 
Bain  calls  the  primitive  credulity  of  the  child. 

Such  a  view  is  borne  out  by  the  history  of  the  race. 
What  we  call  the  superstitions  of  the  primitive  savage 
are  not,  to  him,  mere  imaginings.  Unable  to  decide 
between  real  and  apparent  coincidence  and  cause,  the 
savage  mind  accepts  as  positive  concrete  realities  what 
we  hold  to  be  but  the  fancies  of  gross  ignorance.  It 
is  hardly  likely  that  anything  short  of  the  fullest  pos- 
sible conviction  would  lead  men  to  suffer  such  mental 
and  physical  tortures  as  are  involved  in  most  of  the 
religious  systems  of  uncivilised  races. 

Some  writers  also  credit  children  with  great  readi- 
ness in  forming  general  ideas.  They  say  that  a  child 
soon  learns  to  use  a  name  in  its  wide  and  general  sense, 
so  that  when  it  knows  the  word  dog  it  quickly  grasps 
the  notion  that  it  should  apply  the  name  to  an  indefinite 
number  of  animals  of  a  certain  kind.  Here  again 
far  too  much  is  taken  for  granted  on  behalf  of  the 
child.  It  is  indeed  one  of  those  mistakes  which 
the  adult  is  so  likely  to  make  when  dealing  with 
the  child's  mind,  viz.,  reading  into  the  comparative 
emptiness  and  crudeness  of  the  child's  mental  experi- 


1G8  EDUCATION 

ences  and  activities  the  fulness  and  ripeness  of  tlie 
content  of  his  own  mental  experiences  and  activities 
which  deal  with  similar  things  and  conditions.  This  is 
a  most  serious  and  fatal  mistake  for  the  educator  to 
make,  and  its  possibility  should  always  be  present  to  his 
mind  to  serve  as  a  caution  and  a  corrective. 

To  generalise  an  idea,  and,  therefore,  a  name,  in 
any  real  sense  needs  either  a  very  extensive  practical 
acquaintance  with  objects,  or  a  clear  and  comprehensive 
rational  analysis  of,  and  inductive  judgment  about, 
qualities.  The  child  has  neither  of  these  qualifications 
for  generalising.  Children  do  apply,  and  rightly,  one 
name  to  many  objects  of  the  same  kind,  but  in  their 
earliest  years  the  movement  of  thought  is,  as  a  rule, 
from  one  object  to  another,  and  not  from  one  to  many, 
or  even  from  many  to  many.  Much  less  is  it  from  one, 
or  a  few,  to  all — except  through  the  ignorant  rashness 
and  blindness  so  characteristic  of  incompetent  beginners, 
and  which  often  seems  more  penetrating  than  the  most 
informed  clearness  of  vision. 

Careful  observation  will  show  how  mistakenly  the 
child  proceeds  even  from  one  case  to  another.  Thus 
it  will  call  every  man  "  father,"  at  first,  and  regards 
all  toys  as  its  own.  Its  judgments  are  almost  invariably 
about  single  facts  concerning  single  objects.  It  is 
very  positive  in  its  ideas,  and,  therefore,  very  much 
disturbed  by  contradiction.  All  this  is  against 
anything  like  a  considerable  power  of  generalising 
ideas.  It  is  rather  collective,  and  multiple,  ideas,  than 
general,  which  children  have.  They  get  more  or  less 
complex  ideas  answering  to  complex  wholes,  and  they 


MENTAL   DEVELOPMENT  169 

learn  to  apply  these  to  all  the  individual  instances  they 
know  of. 

Whilst  recognising  these  general  limits  of  early 
childhood  it  would  be  wrong  to  suppose-  that  there  is 
never  anything  approaching  true  generalisation  and 
constructive  imagination  in  the  mental  life  at  this 
period.  It  may  frequently  happen  in  the  case  of  very 
precocious  children,  and  not  infrequently  in  the  case 
of  an  average  child,  that  from  the  third  year  onwards  such 
developments  definitely,  but  incidentally,  appear. 

In  all  children  there  is  a  very  strong  power  of  repro- 
ductive imagination,  and  imitation,  which  may  easily 
pass  on  to  constructive  imagination.  This  is  well  seen 
in  the  dramatic  way  in  which  they  imitatively  repro- 
duce the  actions  and  words  of  their  mother  or  teacher, 
in  playing  at  being  parent  or  instructor.  Children 
appear  to  rethink  the  memories  of  events  as  vividly 
and  intensely  as  they  were  affected  by  the  original  ex- 
periences. 

The  chief  point  to  be  remembered  is  that  it  is  the 
exception  for  the  higher  powers  of  reason  to  take 
definite  form  in  the  first  three  years  of  life,  and  that 
even  after  this  they,  for  some  time,  only  develop  very 
slowly  and  subordinately. 

Knowing  at  this  stage  is  of  a  practical  nature. 
Children  obtain  what  we  may  call  a  direct,  limited,  and 
descriptive  knowledge  of  things  and  actions.  They 
understand  the  qualities  and  powers  of  things  from 
the  concrete  point  of  view.  They  know  that  an  apple 
is  large  or  small,  green  or  red,  sweet  or  sour,  hard 
or  soft,    a    kind    of   food,  the  fruit    of  a    tree,    and 


170  EDUCATION 

SO  on ;  but  these  facts  are  rather  heaped  together  than 
joined  together  in  thought,  in  relation  to  the  unity  of 
the  object. 

The  use  of  adjectives  instead  of  abstract  nouns,  that 
is,  the  coDcrete  instead  of  the  abstract  term,  is  a  very 
significant  fact  in  the  history  of  the  child  and  the  race. 
And  this  is  still  further  emphasised  in  the  use  of 
concrete  terms  to  express  abstract  ideas,  even  in  the 
mental  sciences. 

Observation  and  imitation  are  the  characteristic  ac- 
tivities of  children.  They  are  intensely  interested  in 
all  that  surrounds  them.  Every  object  and  action  is  a 
matter  to  which  they  give  all  the  attention  they  can,  and 
from  which  they  often  get  great  pleasure.  Everything 
is  new  to  the  child,  and  has  all  the  charms  of  novelty, 
whilst  occupying  and  satisfying  its  restless  energy.  So 
great  is  the  readiness  in  receiving,  and  the  force  in 
responding  to,  impressions,  that  they  often  result  in  in- 
voluntary imitation  of  an  action,  or  of  a  simple  series  of 
actions. 

In  "  Practical  Education,"  by  Maria  and  E.  L.  Edge- 
worth,  there  are  some  very  interesting  records  of 
children's  judgments  and  ideas,  which  illustrate  much 
that  we  have  said ;  but,  of  course,  we  cannot  draw  any 
general  conclusions  from  them  alone.  A  child  who  was 
three  years  old,  on  being  questioned,  said  that  a 
watch,  fire,  horse,  and  chaise,  were  live  things,  but 
that  a  tea-urn  and  book  were  not.  It  will  thus  be 
noticed  that  those  things  which  appear  to  be  active 
in  themselves  are  thought  to  have  life.  A  boy  of  five 
years  asked  whether  a  giant  had  not  lived  much  longer 


MENTAL  DEVELOPMENT  171 

than  other  men,  so  as  to  have  time  to  grow  so  mnch 
more.  The  same  boy,  when  eight,  on  being  asked  what 
a  toothpick  case  was  made  of,  and  being  told  to  look 
well  at  it,  and  feel  it,  asked  if  he  might  smell  it.  He 
then  felt,  looked  at,  and  smelt  it,  and  said :  '^  It  is 
black,  and  smooth,  and  strong,  and  light.  What  is, 
let  me  see,  both  strong  and  light,  and  it  will  bend — 
parchment?"  An  older  brother  identified  the  sub- 
stance, through  haying  used  some  leather  in  making  a 
piston  for  a  pump. 

Very  little  need  be  said  of  the  imitative  activities  of 
children.  The  readiness  and  thoroughness  with  which 
they  play  at  mother  and  father,  shopkeeping,  and 
school-teaching,  show  not  only  their  powers  of  copying 
closely,  but  also  of  very  exact  and  searching  observa- 
tion. They  are  often,  in  this  way,  the  best  of  involun- 
tary critics,  and  give  us  many  a  chance  of  seeing  our- 
selves as  others  see  us. 

Similarly  willing  begins  to  get  more  self-dependent 
and  initiative  towards  the  end  of  the  first  period. 
Whilst  in  the  earlier  years  willing  has  been  more  of  a 
passive,  spontaneous,  automatic,  and  instinctive  nature, 
it  now  is  somewhat  initiative,  and  is  directed  to  ends 
fixed  upon  by  the  judgment.  Self-direction,  self-cor- 
rection, and  self-initiation,  along  the  lines  of  past  ex- 
periences, begin  to  appear  in  a  more  or  less  definite 
form.  This  is  well  shown  in  the  school  by  the  child's 
ability  to  invent  designs  in  elementary  drawing,  to  set 
itself  sums  and  to  originate  little  tales  out  of  the  mental 
material  it  has  acquired,  even  at  the  very  early  age  of 
six  years. 


172  EDUCATION 

This  kind  of  development  of  knowing  and  willing  is 
likely  to  take  place  about  the  sixth  and  seventh  years. 
Feeling  is  still  predominant,  but  much  less  so  than 
formerly. 

The  Deyelopment  of  Elnowing. — During  the  second 
seven  years  of  life  there  is  very  great  growth  and 
development  of  knowing.  Not  only  cannot  the  child 
fail  to  mentally  receive  and  appreciate  the  influences 
of  its  surroundings,  but  it  is  driven  to  taking  the  initia- 
tive in  obtaining  experiences,  by  the  needs  of  its 
mental  and  bodily  life.  The  constant  questions  as  to 
why  and  how  objects  act  in  certain  ways,  show  the 
existence  of  a  mental  appetite,  which  is  as  keen  as  it 
is  extensive. 

By  the  end  of  the  seventh  year  most  children  have 
formed  more  or  less  systematic  habits  of  mental  work. 
They  will  apply  themselves  as  readily  and  earnestly 
to  mental  activity  as  to  bodily,  and,  under  proper 
conditions,  they  obtain  nearly,  if  not  quite,  as  much 
pleasure  from  the  former  as  from  the  latter.  Exer- 
cise and  nourishment  of  the  mind  are  as  necessary  and 
should  be  as  pleasurable  to  the  child  as  exercise  and 
nourishment  of  the  body. 

The  practical  knowledge  of  things  is  very  much 
extended,  and  made  more  systematic  and  complete,  so 
that  towards  the  end  of  the  second  period  it  begins  to 
be  definitely  scientific,  in  an  elementary  sense.  The 
child  begins  to  more  definitely  realise  its  power  of 
knowing,  and  to  take  delight  in  exercising  it. 

This  advance  is  brought  about  by  a  closer  analysis  of 
experiences,  and  a  more  thorough  and  comprehensive 


MENTAL   DEVELOPMENT  173 

grasp  of  relations.  For  example,  the  parts,  powers,  and 
qualities  of  an  object  are  more  clearly  recognised  to  be 
dependent  units  which  make  up  the  total  unity  or 
object.  Then  again  these  different  details  are  more 
carefully  compared  with  each  other,  and  with  the 
details  of  similar  objects,  and  thus  the  points  of  likeness 
and  unlikeness  are  taken  account  of  in  greater  fulness. 
This  fuller  recognition  of  similarity  and  difference  is  the 
basis  for  some  of  the  highest  judgments  that  can  be 
made  about  things,  for  they  lead  on  to  the  discovery  of 
what  we  call  the  reasons  for  things. 

Again  this  closer  and  more  complete  analysis  of 
things  from  the  practical  point  of  view,  that  is,  with 
regard  to  our  actual  concrete  acquaintance  with,  and 
knowledge  of,  them,  enables  us  to  make  more  definite 
and  satisfactory  classifications.  Thus  a  further  step  is 
made  towards  organised  knowledge,  or  science. 

The  receiving  and  retaining  powers  of  the  child  are 
at  their  very  highest  during  this  period.  Indeed,  from 
about  the  tenth  to  the  fourteenth  year  memory  is 
stronger  than  at  any  other  time  during  the  whole  life. 
Hence  an  enormous  store  of  impressions,  facts,  and 
concrete  ideas  is  acquired  at  this  stage.  It  is,  there- 
fore, of  vital  importance  that  these  should  be  of  the 
best,  most  accurate,  and  most  helpful  kinds. 

Nearly  all  the  materials  which  are  acquired  are  sub- 
mitted to  the  judgment.  The  judgments  which  are 
made  about  them  are  still  predominantly  concrete  and 
direct,  but  they  are  more  connected  and  extensive  than 
formerly.  This  is  shown  by  the  ability  to  give  in 
writing,  or  orally,  a  more  or  less  exhaustive  account 


174  EDUCATION 

of  an  object,  not  only  as  to  its  parts  and  qualities,  but 
also  with  respect  to  its  powers  and  its  relations  with 
other  objects,  so  far  as  these  are  shown  by  actions  and 
their  results. 

With  this  apprehension  of  the  connection  between 
actions  and  results  comes  the  first  form  of  an  idea 
which  later  on  becomes  the  most  purely  rational  and 
highly  philosophic  of  all  our  ideas — the  idea  of  cause. 
At  first  the  idea  is  purely  practical  and  concrete,  and 
consists,  as  already  indicated,  in  the  connecting,  in 
thought,  of  certain  actions  with  their  usual  results. 
But  the  idea  gets  fuller  and  more  abstract  as  time 
goes  on. 

We  may  say  that  the  development  of  knowing  during 
this  stage  is  shown  by  the  greater  definiteness,  detail, 
completeness,  accuracy,  and  unity  of  practical  judg- 
ments and  ideas.  This  applies  to  each  separate  idea, 
and  to  its  relation  to  other  ideas,  through  things.  Also 
these  ideas  become  more  and  more  abstract,  that  is, 
they  are  known  to  the  individual  as  ideas,  apart  from 
the  objects  and  experiences  which  give  rise  to  them. 

Language  now  begins  to  be  familiar  and  very  helpful. 
It  serves  to  give  clearness,  definiteness,  and  permanence 
to  ideas.  Ideas  are  more  readily  and  thoroughly, 
surely  and  easily,  controlled.  It  is  much  easier  to 
retain  and  recall  an  idea  through  a  symbol,  than  when 
dealing  with  the  idea  itself.  Another  means  of  impart- 
ing knowledge  is  also  provided  by  language ;  and  the 
bridge  which  carries  the  individual  from  the  lower  to 
higher  kinds  of  thought  is  largely  built  of  words. 

Where  previously  there  have  been  groups  of  judg- 


MENTAL   DEVELOPMENT  175 

ments  about  things  there  will  now  be  series  of  con- 
nected and  dependent  judgments  about  them.  In 
other  words,  the  power  of  reasoning,  or  connected  and 
dependent  judging,  appears.  Reasoning  is  at  this 
period  predominantly  practical,  or  concrete.  It  deals 
mostly  with  things  and  events,  as  a  rule,  and  only 
with  principles  and  causes,  in  their  purely  rational 
aspects,  occasionally  and  superficially.  Mind  begins 
to  find  in  its  surroundings  a  coherence  and  unity  which 
also  belong  to  its  own  nature. 

That  the  mental  powers  take  time  to  reach  such  a 
condition  of  judgment  is  shown  by  such  facts  as  the 
following.  In  the  lowest  forms  of  language  abstract 
terms  are  entirely  wanting.  The  Tasmanians,  when 
first  known,  had  no  general  term  for  a  tree,  though 
they  had  names  for  each  particular  kind.  Neither 
could  they  express  qualities  such  as  hard,  soft,  round, 
warm,  cold,  short,  and  long. 

In  the  North  American  languages  a  name  sufficiently 
general  to  denote  an  oak-tree  is  exceptional.  The 
Choctaw  language  contains  names  for  the  black  oak, 
white  oak,  and  red  oak,  but  none  for  an  oak,  still  less 
for  a  tree.  The  Coroados  of  Brazil  have  no  conception 
of  the  general  powers  and  laws  of  nature,  and  therefore 
cannot  express  them  in  words. 

All  this  shows  that  the  mind  is,  at  first,  almost  en- 
tirely taken  up  with  the  effort  to  know  single  things. 
It  is  only  gradually  that  it  is  able  to  clearly  and  defi- 
nitely take  account  of  groups  of  things,  even  with 
respect  to  concrete  numbers,  much  less  with  regard  to 
their  abstract  qualities,  powers,  and  principles. 


176  EDUCATIOI^ 

We  may  illustrate  the  nature  of  the  knowledge 
which  the  average  child  possesses  towards  the  end  of 
this  period,  by  a  description  of  what  we  consider  would 
represent  his  knowledge  of  an  ordinary  lamp.  In  the 
first  place  he  would  have  very  definite  and  exact  ideas 
about  its  function,  shape,  and  parts,  and  their  conorete 
relations.  He  would  probably  be  able  to  give  the 
practical  reasons  for  its  having  a  chimney,  and  for  this 
being  removable:  for  the  need  of  the  perforated 
arrangement  just  below  the  wick:  for  the  use  of  the 
weight  of  the  pedestal :  the  function  and  action  of  the 
wick:  and  for  various  other  details.  Also  he  would 
be  likely  to  know  the  nature  of  the  material  of  which 
each  part  is  composed,  and  the  practical  relation  of  this 
to  the  special  function  performed. 

This  involves  a  great  deal  of  classification,  and, 
therefore,  of  judgments  based  upon  previous  know- 
ledge. Each  detail  has  to  be  compared,  in  thought  at 
least,  with  previous  experiences  of  things  of  the  same 
class,  and  its  points  of  special  likeness  and  difference 
noted,  in  relation  to  the  lamp  as  a  particular  object. 
The  greater  familiarity  with,  command  over,  and 
facility  in  the  use  of,  language,  however,  makes  this 
comparatively  easy,  and  ideas,  as  such,  are  very  readily 
dealt  with  through  their  verbal  signs.  Through  words, 
a  considerable  number  of  ideas  can  be  represented  in 
the  mind  at  the  same  moment,  and  comparison  and 
classification  are  then  not  so  difficult.  In  a  similar 
way  the  abstract  elements  of  ideas  are  more  easily 
developed  through  the  aid  of  words. 

Further,  the  various  details  of  the  lamp  will  be  under- 


MENTAL  DEVELOPMENT  177 

stood  as  making  up  the  one  whole.  There  will  be  the 
realisation  of  the  fact  that  the  removal  of  any  one 
separate  part  changes  the  previous  total  more  or  less 
seriously;  whilst  changing  the  character  of  an  essen- 
tial part,  such  as  the  perforated  air-passage,  will  alto- 
gether destroy  the  former  character  of  the  whole.  The 
relation  of  air  to  flame  will  be  grasped,  from  the  prac- 
tical side ;  €md  it  may  be  practically  demonstrated  that 
it  is  not  the  oil  itself,  but  the  gas  which  it  gives  off, 
which  supports  the  flame. 

Knowledge  such  as  this  is  just  on  the  borderland  of 
pure  science,  and  will  of  itself  often  force  the  intelli- 
gent student  to  make  one  or  more  of  those  generalised 
abstractions  which  go  to  make  up  the  principles  of  the 
different  sciences. 

Although  the  child  is  now  less  easily  deceived  than 
formerly,  and  more  slow  to  accept  first  impressions  as 
final  truths,  yet,  when  it  has  new  and  striking  experi- 
ences, it  is  still  apt,  so  to  speak,  to  swallow  things 
whole.  Neither  its  knowledge  nor  its  mental  powers 
enable  it  to  be  very  cautious  or  critical. 

During  this  period  the  bodily  powers  are  growing 
and  developiug  very  considerably.  The  child  is  able 
to  influence  its  surroundings  to  a  very  large  extent. 
It  finds  that  it  can  carry  out  series  of  actions  which 
bring  about  results  which  are  more  or  less  interesting 
and  instructive  to  it.  This  leads  it  to  spend  its  very 
great  physical  energy  in  all  kinds  of  explorations  and 
investigations  on  its  own  behalf.  Towards  the  end  of 
the  second  seven  years  boys  begin  to  develop  the  egg- 
collecting,  stamp-collecting,  animal-keeping,  and  other 

M 


178  EDUCATION 

forms  of  systematic  and  independent  activity.  In  their 
games  also  they  are  quite  capable  of  forming  and  con- 
ducting  their  own  little  organisations  and  plans. 

Anything  which  offers  the  opportunity  for  the  child 
to  bring  about  results  by  its  own  unaided  efforts  is 
most  eagerly  welcomed  by  it.  To  be  able  to  say  "I 
did  it  all  myself,"  is  one  of  its  greatest  pleasures. 
Indeed  it  is  apt  to  be  very  intolerant  of  too  much 
guidance  and  assistance,  however  kindly  rendered. 
The  bodily  vigour  enables  it  to  continue  constantly 
active  at  high  pressure,  so  that  the  amount  of  work 
which  it  can  get  through  is,  comparatively  speaking, 
enormous.  By  work  is  here  meant  the  more  or  less 
free,  spontaneous,  and  pleasurable  activity  of  mind  and 
body,  in  taking  appropriate  nourishment  and  exercise. 

This  parallel  progress  of  bodily  power  and  of  know- 
ing, is  shown  by  the  appearance  of  personal  tastes,  pre- 
ferences, propensities,  and  independence  of  thought  and 
action.  Habits  are  now  being  formed,  which  will  later 
on  fix  the  character  of  the  individual.  Ideas,  and  even 
ideals  of  a  simple  kind,  begin  to  be  the  guiding  power 
in  life.  Aims  and  ambitions  may  take  possession  of 
the  mind.  In  short  the  higher,  or  purely  rational, 
mental  life  is  beginning  to  predominate. 

One  very  important  consideration  must  always  be 
remembered  with  regard  to  the  development  of  know- 
ing. Whilst  feeling  will  be  developed  very  much  to  the 
same  extent  in  very  different  surroundings,  the  progress 
of  knowing  will  vary  very  much  according  to  differences 
of  surroundings.  If,  for  example,  one  child  is  brought 
up  in  the  home  of  well-educated  and  refined  parents, 


MENTAL   DEVELOPMENT  179 

-whilst  another  is  reared  in  the  cottage  of  very  poor  and 
ignorant  parents,  the  former  is  likely  to  develop  the 
purely  rational  elements  of  knowing  considerably  sooner 
than  the  latter.  But  this  consideration  must  not  be 
pressed  too  far.  School  influences  and  the  straggle  for 
existence  do  much  to  sharpen  the  wits  of  the  poor. 

It  is  more  often  the  case  that  the  difference  is  one  of 
direction  rather  than  degree.  The  street  arab  is  likely 
to  be  as  mentally  keen  and  powerful  as  the  public- 
school  boy,  but  with  regard  to  entirely  different 
matters.  Similarly  the  average  country  child  and  the 
town  child,  the  agriculturist  and  the  artisan,  or  the 
man  of  business  and  the  scholar,  are  likely  to  have,  as 
a  rule,  about  the  same  degree  of  development  of  mental 
powers,  though  very  different  acquirements.  A  definite 
and  marked  distinction  has  hitherto  existed  between 
the  mental  development  of  the  average  child  in  a 
primary  school  and  a  secondary  school ;  but  this  now 
seems  to  be  largely  disappearing. 

From  what  has  been  said  about  the  advance  of  know- 
ing at  this  stage  of  the  child's  life,  it  will  be  seen  that 
willing  is  also  making  considerable  progress.  If  this 
were  not  so  neither  thought  or  action  could  have  those 
elements  of  independence  and  individuality  which  have 
been  suggested. 

Now  that  judgments  come  freely,  the  connection  of 
actions  with  effect  is  known,  and  the  possibilities  of  ihe 
bodily  powers  are  recognised,  the  mind  makes  judg- 
ments which  imitate  series  of  bodily  actions.  This  is 
practical  willing.  The  hesitation  in  taking  independ- 
ent lines   of  action,  and  the  want  of  perseverance  in 


180  EDUCATION 

pursuing  them  when  taken,  which  have  characterised 
the  earlier  years,  now  begin  to  disappear,  though  they 
are  still  frequent  and  conspicuous. 

Children  begin  to  realise  their  will  power,  and 
acquire  some  control  over  it.  They  are  no  longer  so 
easily  moved  to  action  by  the  mere  force  of  impressions. 
Involuntary  imitative  actions  become  less  frequent,  and 
are  replaced  by  voluntarily  chosen  and  designed  imita- 
tions. The  intense  volatility  of  the  young  child  begins 
to  develop  into  the  greater  steadiness,  power  of  sus- 
tained attention,  and  regularity,  of  the  youth. 

As  we  have  said,  plans  and  series  of  actions  are 
carried  out.  This  involves  the  systemising  of  willing. 
Thus  willing,  like  knowing,  is  developing  a  practical 
coherence  and  unity. 

Feeling  is  still  very  keen,  strong,  and  aotive,  but 
much  more  under  control.  Owing  to  the  progress  of 
knowing  and  willing  the  feelings  are  much  more  fully 
and  accurately  discriminated.  Hence  they  are  more 
significant  and  less  emotional,  or  passionate.  Life  has 
passed  from  its  more  purely  vegetative  to  a  more  purely 
human  character.  Feelings  become  less  animal  and 
more  humane  and  sympathetic. 

The  various  feelings,  as  connected  with  different 
experiences,  have  now  far  more  definiteness  and  signifi- 
cance than  formerly.  Both  knowing  and  sense  capacity 
increase  the  fulness  of  their  meaning  and  detail.  And 
the  feelings  in  their  turn  stimulate  and  promote  the 
desire  to  know.  The  sentiments  also  are  taking  definite 
form.  Gratitude,  affection,  respect,  sympathy,  self- 
esteem,   and  many   other    sentiments,   in  their  more 


MENTAL   DEVELOPMENT  181 

practical  and  concrete  aspects,  are  possessed  by  the 
child. 

We  shall  have  much  to  say  about  the  details  of  the 
growth  and  development  of  knowing  in  later  chapters 
on  the  development  of  ideas  and  the  growth  of  know- 
ledge. 

The  Development  of  Willing.— In  the  third  seven  years 
of  life,  willing  is  predominant  in  development.  But 
this  predominance  is,  perhaps,  hardly  so  marked  as  that 
of  feeling  and  knowing  in  their  respective  periods. 
This  is  doubtless  due  to  the  fact  that  willing  is  so  very 
closely  connected  with  knowing,  which  still  develops  at 
a  very  rapid  rate.  But  there  is  hardly  any  question 
that  the  advance  of  willing  is  the  characteristic  feature 
at  this  stage. 

It  is  generally  recognised  that  youth,  and  early  man- 
hood and  womanhood,  is  the  time  when  individuals 
begin  to  assert  themselves,  to  desire  their  own  way,  to 
be  impatient  of  control,  to  be  dogmatic  and  uncompro- 
mising in  judgment,  and  to  cling  persistently  if  not 
obstinately  to  their  opinions  and  prejudices.  At  the 
same  time  it  is  a  period  when  great  initiativeness,  readi- 
ness, boldness,  perseverance,  and  power  in  action  are 
shown. 

The  average  youth  is  the  last  to  practically  admit 
that  "we  are  all  fallible,  even  the  youngest,"  or  to 
recognise  that  human  powers  are,  after  all,  very  limited. 
The  sense  of  power,  the  feeling  of  vigorous  vitality,  the 
pleasures  of  action,  and  the  inexperience  and  ignorance 
of  youth,  are  all  conditions  which  tend  to  make  the  will 
run  riot.     What  Dr.  Bain  calls  the  pleasures  of  pursuit 


182  EDUCATION 

are  very  keenly  relished,  and  there  is  too  much  buoy- 
ancy in  the  nature  to  feel  failures  very  much,  even  if 
they  are  admitted. 

All  these  characteristics  of  youth  depend  upon  the 
development  of  willing.  Willing  as  an  activity  of 
mind  is  now  definitely  under  the  general  mental  con- 
trol. Involuntary  willing  is  almost  entirely  superseded 
by  voluntary  willing.  What  is  generally  understood 
by  the  will — ^the  power  to  initiate,  and  to  choose 
between,  thoughts  and  actions — ^now  appears.  This 
fact  is  realised  by  the  individual,  and  instead  of  too 
much  hesitation  and  too  little  steadfastness  in  willing, 
there  is  often  too  little  hesitation  and  too  much  per- 
sistence.    Youth  is  apt  to  be  rash  and  headstrong. 

Just  as  there  was  an  almost  limitless  desire  and 
eagerness  to  know,  when  the  powers  and  pleasures  of 
knowing  began  to  be  realised,  so  there  is  now  a  con- 
stant and  eager  indulgence  in  willing  for  the  sake  of 
the  excitement,  interest,  and  satisfaction  which  the 
exercise  of  the  power,  and  the  accompanying  actions, 
give. 

But  there  is  much  more  than  this  increase  of  power 
and  intensity  in  willing.  The  coherence  and  unity  of 
the  separate  activities  of  the  power  are  developed  to  a 
much  higher  degree.  Series  and  systems  of  wil lings 
are  carried  out,  and  these  are  again  related  to  each 
other  so  as  to  form  more  comprehensive  and  complex 
unities.  Thus  the  individuality  and  character  are  made 
to  take  a  much  more  definite  and  effective  form. 

Separate  actions,  and  courses  of  actions,  are  now 
decided  upon  according  to  the  individuality  of  the  person. 


MENTAL   DEVELOPMENT  183 

It  is  during  this  period  that  the  individual  develops  the 
powers  and  preferences  which  are  likely,  if  the  matter 
is  left  entirely  to  him,  to  lead  to  the  choice  of  a  definite 
kind  of  life-work.  Such  a  choice,  when  made  after  full 
consideration,  and  with  some  realisation  of  its  meaning 
and  consequences,  involves  one  of  the  most  powerful, 
permanent,  and  important  efforts  of  will  that  the 
individual  ever  makes.  And,  if  this  be  so,  the  fact  of 
such  a  momentous  choice  being  made  is  conclusive 
evidence  of  the  great  development  of  willing. 

The  chief  element  of  advance  in  the  power  of  willing 
is  the  ability  to  organise  series  of  actions,  mental  and 
physical,  which  are  intended  to  bring  about  more  or 
less  remote  ends.  Children  have  very  little,  if  any, 
regard  to  future  pleasures  or  pains.  But  in  later  youth 
and  early  manhood,  or  womanhood,  when  the  mind 
begins  to  realise  more  fully  its  own  powers,  there  is  a 
strong  tendency  to  pay  more  attention  to  the  future 
than  to  the  present.  The  poetry  of  mental  ideals 
has  more  attraction  than  the  prose  of  commonplace 
realities. 

The  imagination  is  now  vigorous,  but  it  is  neither 
checked  by  deep  knowledge  and  critical  judgment,  nor 
chastened  by  the  convictions  of  wide  experience  and 
frequent  failur^.  Hence  the  enthusiasms,  Utopian 
dreams,  beliefs  in  practical  perfection,  struggles  for  the 
realisation  of  ideals,  and  living  in  the  future,  of  young 
people.  Willing  is  with  them  such  a  reality  that  they 
fail  to  distinguish  between  the  reality  of  a  willing  and 
the  possibility  of  its  practical  realisation.  Every  one  is 
likely  to  be  more  or  less  of  a  visionary  at  this  time  of 


184  EDUCATION 

life.  To  conceive  ideals  is,  in  youth,  to  believe  in  them, 
and  to  believe  in  them  is  to  struggle  to  realise  them. 
It  is  in  this  connection  that  willing  is  called  upon  to 
initiate  and  maintain  the  stimulus  to  series  of  actions. 
.  Willing  may,  therefore,  be  said  to  be  more  concerned 
with  purely  intellectual  judgments  and  activities  than 
formerly.  Most  of  the  willings  necessary  for  practical 
affairs  have  become  habitual,  and  only  new  departures 
in  ordinary  life  demand  deliberate  and  self-conscious 
acts  of  willing.  It  is  the  higher  and  more  purely 
rational  activities  which  now  begin  to  assert  themselves, 
and  which,  therefore,  need  the  energising  and  organis- 
ing control  of  the  will.  Thus  willing  itself  becomes 
a  more  purely  rational  activity,  for  it  is,  practically, 
wholly  due  to  and  concerned  with  the  mind,  as  such. 
It  has  become  an  expression  of  the  intellectual  and 
moral  self,  or  the  ego. 

In  this  its  highest  form  willing  is  chiefly  dependent 
upon  knowing.  Knowledge  is  the  stimulating  influence 
which  is  responded  to  by  the  higher  willings.  As  we  have 
previously  asserted,  knowing  is  a  motive  for  willing. 

Since  willing  is  ordinarily,  and  rightly,  associated 
with  acting,  we  may  illustrate  its  development  by  a 
brief  account  of  the  development  of  action.  All 
organised  action,  with  the  exception  jf  the  instinctive, 
is  at  first  mainly  imitative.  Charles  Lamb's  delight- 
fully humorous  account  of  the  way  in  which  roast  pig 
became  such  a  popular  dish  really  contains  many 
elements  of  historical  truth.  Such  happy  accidents 
have  led  men  to  many,  if  not  most,  of  their  discoveries. 

Thus  it  is  held  that  man  first  learnt  to  make  fire  by 


MENTAL   DEVELOPMENT  185 

observing  the  result  of  the  rubbing  together  of  dried 
branches  when  swayed  by  the  wind,  or  the  effect  upon 
dry  leaves  of  falling  spaiks  made  by  knocking  flints 
together.  The  history  of  progress  is  full  of  accounts 
of  such  stumblings  upon  discoveries. 

Then  there  is  the  imitating  of  the  actions  involved, 
and  the  application  of  the  results  to  practical  affairs. 
In  this  way  observation  and  imitation  produce  many  of 
the  highest  aids  to  progress.  Much  more  is  it  true 
that  imitative  action  is  the  means  of  farthering  the 
more  ordinary  elements  of  development.  We  may  say 
that  in  such"  cases  willing  is  acting  so  as  to  cause  the 
mental  response  to  impressions  to  result  in  re-expres- 
sion of  the  original  influences — as  in  the  case  when  a 
hearer  repeats  the  gestures  of  one  who  dramatically  tells 
a  story.  Such  willing  is  both  prompted  and  guided  by 
presentations. 

Prom  these  almost  compulsory  imitations  individuals 
soon  learn  that  it  is  worth  while  to  look  out  for  helpful 
examples  of  causes  and  effects,  and  to  expend  consider- 
able effort  in  trying  to  copy  them.  Thus  there  comes 
an  element  of  initiation  into  imitative  action.  Willing 
is  prompted '-and  guided  by  practical  experience  and 
knowledge. 

Later  on,  actions,  are  prompted  and  guided  almost 
wholly  by  judgments  based  upon  the  knowledge  already 
obtained  through  observation,  action,  and  previous 
judgment.  Actions  of  this  kind  are  based  upon,  and 
designed  to  carry  out,  series  of  judgments  due  almost 
wholly  to  the  purely  initiative  powers  of  the  mind. 
Pure  rational  willing  is  the  cause  of  such  actions.     It 


186  EDUCATION 

is  the  liighest  form  of  willing,  and  the  highest  results 
of  thought  and  action  in  human  life  are  due  to  it. 

As  an  expression  of  the  individuality  of  the  self,  or 
ego,  the  will  controls  the  actions  which  produce  habits, 
and  is  in  time  largely  controlled  by  the  habits  which 
are  formed.  Character  is  an  expression  of  willing,  and 
willing  expresses  the  character.  All  the  powers  and 
possibilities  of  the  individual  may  be  more  or  less  fully 
realised  when  willing  has  reached  its  highest  level  of 
development. 

Whilst  willing  is  thus  developing  up  to  its  highest 
level,  so  also  is  knowing.  We  have  already  remarked 
that  knowing  begins  to  be  of  a  strictly  scientific  char^ 
acter  ix)wards  the  end  of  the  second  seven  years. 
During  the  third  seven  years,  it  becomes,  under  favour- 
able conditions,  more  completely  and  generally  scientific 
in  character.  The  learner  is  no  longer  satisfied  to 
know  things  as  facts,  but  he  desires  to  know,  and 
insists  upon  knowing,  in  a  scientific  sense,  the  causes 
of  things,  and  the  laws  and  principles  which  belong  to 
them,  so  far  as  this  may  be  possible. 

Let  us  inquire  more  particularly  into  what  is  to  be 
understood  by  a  scientific  form  of  knowing.  We  have 
already  given  the  usual  definition :  science  is  organised 
knowledge.  To  organise  knowledge  is  to  set  it  forth 
in  its  proper  order  of  co-ordination  and  subordination  : 
its  inter-relations,  inter-dependence,  and  inter-connec- 
tion. These  therefore  must  be  found  out.  In  other 
words,  we  must  obtain  a  knowledge  of  the  elements,  laws, 
principles,  causes,  and  effects  of  the  different  kinds  or 
classes  of  things,  and  of  their  nature  and  actions. 


MENTAL  DEVELOPMENT  187 

How,  then,  does  the  mind  obtain  this  knowledge  ? 
As  has  been  previously  remarked,  the  mind  at  first 
deals  only  with  individual  objects,  as  concretes.  Later 
on  it  learns  to  take  account  of  larger  or  smaller  groups 
of  like  things,  that  is,  it  forms  ideas  of  classes,  in  a 
concrete  sense,  and  makes  inclusive  judgments  about 
them.  But,  in  the  third  period  of  development,  it  has 
come,  so  to  speak,  face  to  face  with  its  own  mind,  and 
definitely  and  clearly  realises  that  there  is  in  its  know- 
ledge a  purely  mental  element,  the  application  of  which 
is  not  necessarily  confined  to  one  object,  or  one  class  of 
objects. 

This  fact  is  not  only  recognised,  but  is  systematically 
made  use  of,  and  the  individual  now  generalises  his 
judgments  in  a  conscious  and  purposeful  manner.  Such 
a  rational  use  of  the  judgment  is  very  diflPerent  from 
the  experience-limited  and  practical  collective  judg- 
ments of  an  earlier  period.  The  individual  now  recog- 
nises the  fact  that  there  are  elements  of  universal 
truths  in  the  connection  of  causes  and  efiects  which  are 
discovered  in  single  objects.  A  very  great  advance  in 
mental  development  is  involved  in  this,  for  knowledge 
can  now  be  consciously  organised,  and  the  existing 
organisms  of  knowledge  (the  sciences)  can  be  more 
clearly  and  comprehensively  appreciated  from  the  purely 
rational  or  theoretical  point  of  view. 

Such  a  movement  of  thought  from  particular  in- 
stances and  judgments  of  limited  application  to  the 
recognition  of  universal  truths  and  the  forming  of 
judgments  of  universal  application,  is  called  inductive 
reasoning.     A  detailed   example  of  this   has   already 


188  EDUCATION 

been  given  in  the  chapter  on  the  scope  and  method  of 
education.  We  will  now  express  the  matter  in  quite 
general  terms. 

There  is  first  a  particular  observation  of  a  certain 
class  of  facts,  or  phenomena,  which  common  experience 
has  shown  to  have  significant  points  of  similarity ;  then 
follows  a  more  careful,  thorough,  complete,  and  sys- 
tematic classifying  of  these  facts,  according  to  what 
is  learnt  from  severely  searching  observation.  This  is 
followed  by  that  higher  form  of  knowledge  about  the 
qualities,  powers,  relations,  and  nature  of  the  things, 
which  leads  to  the  forming  of  an  opinion  as  to  the 
reason,  or  reasons,  for  the  existence  of  certain  general 
qualities  or  powers.  These  general  judgments  about 
the  reason  for  such  things,  are  known  as  theories  or 
hypotheses,  and  they  are,  at  first,  simply  supposings, 
or,  as  the  scientist  would  say,  purely  hypothetical 
theories.  They  seem,  as  we  say,  to  oifer  a  satisfactory 
explanation  of  matters. 

The  next  thing  is  to  put  them  to  the  proof.  This  is 
best  done  by  taking  two  instances  of  the  conditions 
which  constitute  the  phenomenon  which  are  exactly 
similar  to  each  other,  with  the  single  exception  that  in 
one  case  the  condition  (or  conditions)  which  is  held  to 
be  the  reason  or  cause  for  the  phenomenon,  is  present, 
whilst  in  the  other  it  is  absent.  This  must  be,  so  far 
as  we  can  secure  it,  absolutely  the  only  diflEerence 
between  the  two  cases.  Then,  if,  after  many  experi- 
ments and  experiences,  we  always  find  in  the  one  case 
that  the  phenomenon  itself  is  present,  whilst  in  the 
other  it  is  invariably  absent,  we  may  safely  conclude 


MENTAL  DEVELOPMENT  189 

that  wbat  we  have  given  as  reason,  cause,  or  law,  is  the 
right  one.  One  other  element  of  proof  remains.  The 
theory  is  regarded  as  true,  and  is  taken  as  the  basis 
for  reasoning  abont  the  phenomena  which  it  represents, 
and  also  about  other  phenomena.  If  the  conclusions 
of  such  reasonings  prove  to  be  invariably  sound  when 
practically  applied  to  concrete  cases,  then  the  theory 
is  regarded  as  finally  established. 

When  principles  and  laws  are  arrived  at  by  inductive 
reasoning,  they  become  centres  and  sources  of  numer- 
ous other  judgments  of  a  more  or  less  general  character. 
As  was  pointed  out  in  the  description  of  an  induction, 
a  universal  truth  or  principle  is  not  finally  accepted 
until  it  has  been  frequently  tested  by  practical  applica- 
tion to  particular  cases,  and  found  to  be  invariably 
correct.  For  example,  if  we  hold  it  to  be  true  that 
when  the  worker  is  interested  in  his  work  he  produces 
Ids  best  results,  then  whenever  we  find  particular 
persons,  or  groups  of  persons,  really  interested  in  their 
work,  we  ought  invariably  to  find  that  they  are  doing 
the  best  work  of  which  they  are  capable  (at  the  time). 

The  reasoning  would  proceed  as  follows: — ^all  in- 
terested workers  do  their  best  work ;  these  persons  are 
interested  workers;  therefore,  these  persons  do  their 
best  work.  It  will  be  seen  that  the  first  judgment  is 
the  result  of  the  investigation  which  has  given  the  in- 
duction, the  second  is  the  result  of  a  special  and  limited 
investigation  as  to  the  character  of  a  class,  and  the  third 
is  the  result  of  a  purely  rational  relation  of  the  two 
previous  ones.  The  first  is  a  pure  universal,  that  is, 
it  is  practically  infinite  as  to  its  application ;  the  second 


1 90  EDUCATION 

is  general,  but  definitely  limited ;  and  the  third  is  only 
as  wide  as  the  less  comprehensive  of  the  other  two. 

Instead  of  referring  to  a  class  in  the  second  judg- 
ment, we  might  have  referred  to  an  individual  only. 
The  third  judgment  would  then  refer  only  to  the  indi- 
vidual. Such  a  movement  of  thought  from  judgments 
with  a  more  general  to  a  less  general,  or  individual, 
application  is  called  deductive  reasoning. 

It  should  be  noticed  that  deductions  are  based,  and 
depend,  upon  inductions,  and  that  inductions  depend 
upon  deductions  for  their  verification.  Thus  the  two  pro- 
cesses are  inseparably  connected  with  each  other,  and 
are  really  only  two  phases  in  the  process  of  establishing 
rational  truth.  They  directly  bring  about  that  inter- 
connection of  knowledge  which  gives  it  scientific  form. 

From  what  has  been  said  of  induction  and  deduction, 
it  will  be  seen  that  knowing  has  what  we  may  call  a 
progressive  and  a  regressive  order  of  development  It 
first  advances  from  individual  experiences  and  judg- 
ments, through  close  analytic  and  synthetic  investiga- 
tion, to  principles  of  universal  application.  When  these 
have  become  established  and  familiar,  the  mind  uses 
them  for  interpreting  and  explaining  new  experiences, 
and  for  the  more  complete  understanding  of  previous 
knowledge  So  there  is  progress  from  a  knowledge 
of  things  to  a  knowledge  of  laws,  and  then  from  an 
understanding  of  laws  to  an  understanding  of  things, 
new  and  old. 

Towards  the  end  of  this  period,  and  onwards,  the 
mind  begins,  and  continues,  to  take  account  of  itself  in 
a  more  or  less  definite  and  systematic  way.     It  recog- 


MENTAL   DEVELOPMENT  191 

nises  that  judgment,  as  such,  belongs  wholly  to  the 
mind,  and  is,  as  judgment,  separate  and  distinct  from 
experiences  which  give  rise  to  it.  Hence  are  recognised, 
in  a  more  or  less  full  and  complete  sense,  the  differences 
between  a  thing  and  its  attributes,  effects  and  causes, 
actions  and  laws,  systems  and  principles.  This  involves 
the  recognition  of  the  difference  between  practical  and 
theoretical  knowledge,  between  that  which  is  predomin- 
antly sense-given  and  that  which  is  predominantly 
reason-given. 

Strictly  logical  reasoning  of  this  kind  is  very  largely 
dependent  upon  language.  Indeed,  with  regard  to  the 
highest  forms,  it  may  be  said  to  practically  depend 
wholly  upon  the  aid  which  language  gives.  This  is  a 
point  with  which  we  shall  deal  more  fully  later  on.  It 
will  be  sufficient  to  say  here  that  language  has  now 
reached  its  highest  form  of  usefulness  to  thought,  and 
makes  possible  the  most  abstract  ideas  and  reasonings. 

Let  us  again  refer  to  the  kind  of  knowledge  which 
may  be  obtained  about  a  lamp,  for  the  purpose  of 
illustrating  what  is  meant  by  this  higher  sort  of  know- 
ing. From  a  deeper  and  more  exhaustive  study  of  the 
parts  and  functions  of  a  lamp  we  may  arrive  at  the 
laws  of  combustion,  as  shown  by  the  lamp-flame :  con- 
servation of  energy,  as  seen  in  the  products  of  the 
burning :  cohesion,  as  exemplified  in  the  different  sub- 
stances of  which  the  parts  consist :  of  capillary  attrac- 
tion, as  involved  in  the  function  of  the  wick :  and  so 
on. 

These  would  be  grasped  in  a  more  or  less  superficial 
sense  at  first ;  and  can  only  be  known  in  some  fulness 


192  EDUCATION 

when  studied  under  special  sciences.  In  the  most 
advanced  stages  of  such  subjects  the  inter-relation  and 
inter-dependence  of  the  principles  themselves  are  con- 
sidered. 

Now  is  understood  somewhat  of  the  truth  that  every 
unit  is  in  itself  a  unity  of  parts,  powers,  qualities  and 
relations,  which  may  be,  and  generally  are,  practically 
infinite.  It  has  been  well  said  that  a  fact  is  an  infinity. 
And  yet  these  infinite  unities  are  but  units  in  greater 
unities,  and  these  of  others.  Indeed  it  is  only  because 
of  this  that  we  are  able  to  speak  of  any  one  thing  as 
being  infinite. 

A  pen  is  a  simple  and  commonplace  enough  article. 
And  yet  what  profound  truths  are  involved  in  the  co- 
hesion of  the  particles  which  compose  it ;  what  a  vastly 
significant  history  there  is  in  its  development  to  its 
present  form ;  and  what  a  power  its  work  has  exerted, 
and  is  exerting,  upon  the  destiny  of  the  world. 

If  we  regard  things  in  such  ways,  and  endeavour  to 
find  the  elements  of  infinite  inter-relation  and  inter- 
dependence which  they  have,  then  we  are  making  our 
views  of  things  tend  towards  a  realisation  of  what  is 
believed  to  be  the  one  grand  infinite  unity  of  existence 
and  knowledge.  We  may  pursue  our  inquiry  still 
further,  and  try  to  find  out  what  is  the  nature  and 
essence  of  existence  or  being,  as  such,  both  in  its 
universal  (mind  and  matter)  and  general  (animate  and 
inanimate  things)  forms.  This  is  philosophy  or  meta- 
physics, and  is  clearly  a  purely  rational  form  of 
knowing. 

How  far  an  individual  will  go  in  such  a  very  abstract 


MENTAL   DEVELOPMENT  193 

form  of  mental  development,  must  always  depend  upon 
his  native  capacity  and  vigour  of  mind  and  body,  educa- 
tional advantages,  and  length  of  life.  Every  average 
mind  is  capable  of  something  in  this  direction,  but  not 
many  seem  capable  of  much.  Most  persons  can  how- 
ever appreciate  the  work  of  original  thinkers. 

Both  willing  and  knowing  are  greatly  indebted  to 
the  growth  and  development  of  the  physical  powers,  in 
this  stage.  The  extreme  energy,  vivacity,  powers  of 
endurance,  delight  in  action,  and  desire  of  conquest,  in 
the  ordinarily  healthy  youth,  make  the  carrying  out  of 
willings  and  the  obtaining  of  knowledge-giving  experi- 
ences comparatively  easy  matters.  And  since  exhaus- 
tion of  the  physical  energies  is  very  soon  recovered 
from,  and  the  force  and  fulness  of  the  powers  soon 
re-estabUshed,  the  pursuit  of  knowledge  is  constant, 
and  its  intensity  maintained. 

Peeling  is  still  very  active  and  powerful,  but  is  much 
more  subordinate  than  even  in  the  second  seven  years. 
It  is  now  regarded  as  a  sign  of  weakness  to  show  any 
marked  evidences  of  the  effect  of  certain  feelings,  and, 
indeed,  this  idea  is  sometimes  taken  to  such  extremes 
that  it  is  held  to  be  bad  form  to  give  emphatic  expression 
to'  any  kind  of  feelings.  But  they  are  still  apt  to  be 
occasionally  violent  and  excessive,  owing  to  the  inten- 
sity of  willing. 

Now  the  higher  and  nobler  sentiments  are  greatly 
developed.  Affection,  love,  admiration,  devotion,  wor- 
ship, esteem,  sympathy,  and  the  like,  assume  more 
purely  rational  and  moral  forms.  With  them  are  also 
developed  their  opposites  of  dislike,  hatred,  jealousy, 

N 


194  EDUCATION 

indifference,  neglect,  contempt,  disrespect,  and  unfeel- 
ingness.  Also  the  higher  feelings  of  truth,  beauty, 
goodness,  and  virtue,  take  on  their  fullest  and  finest 
characteristics;  or  are  perverted  to  base  and  ignoble 
forms.  Peelings  of  novelty,  contrast,  surprise,  and  the 
like,  all  have  much  greater  significance,  and  more 
direct  and  remote  relations  in  thought.  Fearlessness 
is  more  under  the  purposeful  control  of  willing  and 
knowing;  whilst  fear  is  often  less  frequently  shown, 
and  less  intense  when  active.  The  feeling  of  power 
brings  with  it  the  feelings  of  responsibility  and  obliga- 
tion. 

The  development  of  willing  makes  it  possible  to  re- 
press the  feelings  to  a  very  considerable  degree.  A 
good  illustration  of  this  repression  is  shown  in  the 
amount  of  physical  pain  boys  will  endure  rather  than 
admit,  either  by  weeping  or  appealing  for  mercy,  that 
they  are  unable  to  bear  it. 

There  are,  however,  higher  motives  for  repressing 
the  feelings.  It  is  soon  found  that  a  state  of  emotion 
or  passion  is  generally  a  barrier  to  accurate  and  profit- 
able willing  and  knowing.  Hence  it  is  that  definite 
efforts  are  made  to  obtain,  and  maintain,  control  over 
the  feelings. 

On  the  other  hand  some  of  the  feelings  are  deliberately 
indulged,  with  a  freedom  often  approaching  license,  on 
certain  occasions ;  whilst  others  are  systematically  cul- 
tivated for  pecuniary  or  personal  reasons.  It  is  usually 
thought  right  to  give  very  emphatic  expressions  of 
feeling  on  such  occasions  as :  victory  in  games,  exhibi- 
tions of  power  and  skill,  the  appearance  of  popular  or 


MENTAL   DEVELOPMENT  195 

eminent  persons,  and  so  forth.  One  might  almost  say 
that  it  is  required  of  people  to  show  marked  signs  of 
distress  in  connection  with  certain  sad  events  amongst 
close  relatives  or  friends.  It  is  clear,  therefore,  that 
the  feelings  must  be  very  much  under  command. 

The  systematic  cultivation  of  the  feelings  takes  place 
in  the  training  of  the  musician,  artist,  actor,  singer, 
orator,  and  the  like.  All  these  have  need  of  the  power 
of  fully  realising  in  themselves,  or  to  conceive,  states  of 
feeling  so  that  they  may  truthfully  express  them  in 
their  respective  arts.  We  may  say  that  the  piano-tuner, 
the  wine-taster,  the  tea-taster,  and  others j  cultivate  the 
feelings  in  a  more  concrete  sense. 

Ordinary  people  indulge,  and  cultivate,  their  feelings 
in  a  more  or  less  systematic  way  through  attendance  at 
dramatic  performances,  concerts,  balls,  military  and 
civil  pageants,  and  so  forth.  Such  exercising  of  the 
feelings,  when  under  the  control  of  willing  and  knowing, 
is  helpful  to  both  of  these,  for  there  is  much  in  the 
occasions  which  conveys  knowledge  in  an  attractive 
and  vivid  manner,  and  there  is  generally  a  very  restful, 
refreshing,  and  invigorating  change  of  the  activity  of 
willing.  The  proper  indulgence  of  the  feelings  is  as 
profitable  as  it  is  pleasurable. 

The  special  gratification  of  the  feelings,  through 
sensations,  seems  likely  to  receive  much  more  attention* 
in  the  near  future.  Already  what  are  called  colour- 
concerts  and  perfume  concerts  have  been  given.  In 
these  performances  colours  and  perfumes  are  made  to 
succeed  each  other,  either  singly  or  in  combinations,  in 
a  manner  resembling  solos  and  harmonies  in  music. 


/ 


J 


196  EDUCATION 

The  sense  of  taste  has  been  carefully  cultivated  in  all 
ages  through  the  pleasures  of  the  table. 

That  the  history  of  the  race  has  many  valuable 
suggestions  for  the  educationist  is  made  evident  by 
even  a  slight  acquaintance  with  writings  on  anthropo- 
logy. Writers  on  the  subject  argue  from  the  evidence 
of  historic  remains,  and  the  conditions  of  savage  races 
at  the  present  time,  that  primitive  man  was  little  more 
than  an  animal  amongst  animals.  He  was  a  creature 
of  fierce  impulses,  child-like  intellect,  and  tremendous 
sense-powers  and  skill.  Constantly  fighting  for  safety 
and  subsistence,  he  was  but  a  poverty-stricken  wanderer 
without  fixed  home  or  interests. 

His  mental  ideas  were  of  the  vaguest  and  most 
mistaken  nature,  as  is  shown  by  the  horrible  super- 
stitions which  possessed  him.  And  yet  he  was  slowly 
and  painfully  learning  to  know  those  obvious  qualities 
and  differences  of  things  which  affected  his  own  life, 
and  which  go  to  make  the  basis  of  the  science  and 
philosophy  of  to-day. 

Like  modem  savages  his  power  of  sustained  attention 
must  have  been  extremely  small,  if  he  could  be  said  to 
really  have  any  at  all ;  anything  in  the  way  of  abstract 
ideas  took  ages  to  develop;  the  idea  of  a  to-morrow 
was  of  comparatively  late  growth ;  his  language  con- 
sisted almost  wholly  of  gestures  and  imitative  sounds ; 
and  his  knowledge  of  number  seems  not  to  have  ex- 
ceeded three,  or  five,  for  a  very  long  period. 

Action  was  the  chief  concern  of  primitive  man.  It 
was  necessary  for  him  to  think  in  connection  with  his 
actions,  but  not  for  him  to  know  that  he  was  thinking. 


MENTAL  DEVELOPMENT  197 

Hence  his  thought  was  intaitive,  immediate,  and  prac- 
tical, in  so  far  as  it  had  to  do  with  his  ordinary  actions. 
As  these  activities  grew  in  number  and  complexity,  and 
the  sphere  of  their  application  was  increased,  so  thought 
and  knowledge  became  fuller  and  deeper.  This  is 
clearly  demonstrated  by  the  history  of  man  during  the 
stone  age,  and  the  age  of  metals. 

The  gradual  evolving  of  the  higher  products  of  the 
thought  and  action  of  to-day  can  be  clearly  traced  from 
the  most  primitive  thought  and  action  of  the  earliest 
races.  The  present  consists  chiefly  of  the  remains  of 
the  past.  Our  religious  ceremonies,  marriage  customs, 
names  of  days  of  the  week,  and  many  other  matters,  all 
contain  traces  of  a  very  remote  past. 

A  careful  study  of  these  things  is  as  necessary  as  it 
is  helpful  to  the  right  understanding  of  the  problem  of 
education.  Man  has  not  fundamentally  changed  his 
nature,  and,  indeed,  only  a  fraction  of  the  race  seems  to 
have  undergone  any  very  considerable  change  at  all,  in 
the  way  of  what  we  call  advance  in  civilisation.  The 
European  nations  with  their  foreign  branches,  which 
claim  to  be  -the  most  highly  civilised,  comprise,  at  the 
most,  not  more  than  one  third  of  the  total  population  of 
the  world. 

Whatever,  therefore,  we  can  know  about  the  past 
development  of  the  race  will,  at  least,  throw  very 
considerable  light  upon  the  present  nature  of  human 
beings.  And  such  a  knowledge  is  one  of  the  first 
conditions  of  a  grasp  of  educational  principles. 

Some  General  Eemarks  on  Development— The  general 
order  of  development  as  sketched  above  applies  not 


198  EDUCATION 

only  to  the  life  as  a  whole,  but  also  to  each  particular 
line  of  progress  and  to  every  considerable  unit  of 
advance.  And  this  is  true  at  every  stage  of  life,  for 
the  reason  that  all  the  elements  of  mind  are  always  co- 
active,  however  much  any  one  of  them  may  predominate. 

An  adult  can  often  dispense  with  actual  sense  ex- 
periences in  connection  with  a  new  form  of  knowledge, 
because  he  may  have  had  a  considerable  number  of 
similar  ones,  the  details  of  which  he  can  easily  recall 
to  mind.  The  sense  experiences  are,  so  to  put  it, 
duplicated.  But  if  he  is  unable  to  do  this,  then  the 
best,  and  the  only  certain  and  really  significant,  method 
is  to  give  him  the  proper  sense  experiences.  As 
Professor  Laurie  says :  "  If  ever  you  have  the  mind  of 
an  undeveloped  adult  to  deal  with  (a  Central  African, 
for  example,  or  a  British  boor),  and  desire  to  teach  him 
anything,  you  must,  even  with  him,  start  from  the 
simplest  child-elements  of  it." 

There  is  a  point,  however,  in  the  history  of  a  well- 
developed  mind  when,  in  consequence  of  its  ripe  reason 
and  rich  experiences,  it  is  able  to  make  use  of  what  we 
have  termed  the  order  of  regressive  advance  to  a  very 
considerable  extent.  The  highest  order  of  scientific 
mind  is  able  to  reason  from  principles  and  efiects  to 
phenomena.  This  is  best  shown  in  such  cases  as  the 
discovery  of  new  planets  from  the  actions  of  known  ones, 
the  invention  of  machinery  which  exemplifies  scientific 
principles,  and  the  anticipation  of  concrete  discoveries, 
based  upon  rational  deductions. 

But  even  such  very  exceptional  powers  are,  in  the 
last  resource,   obliged   to   make   use   of  the  material 


MENTAL  DEVELOPMENT  199 

obtained  from  actual  experiences,  with  regard  to  know- 
ledge about  the  physical  world.  In  the  case  of  all 
purely  rational  knowledge,  the  mind  is,  directly  and 
immediately,  only  indebted  to  its  own  activities ;  but 
the  original  source  of  all  that  is  in  the  mind  as  know- 
ledge is  the  experiences  which  happen  to  the  senses. 

Another  point  which  requires  to  be  clearly  understood 
is  that  we  regard  a  certain  stage  of  development  as 
reached  only  when  there  is  a  clear  consciousness  in  the 
individual  of  the  possession  of  a  power,  at  least  in  a 
concrete  and  practical  sense,  and  a  frequent  use  of  it. 
Incidental  powers  and  results  due  to  the  possession  of 
the  germs  of  such  powers,  must  always  precede,  to  a 
greater  or  lesser  extent,  the  definite  and  general 
development  of  them. 

Still  more  necessary  is  it  to  always  bear  in  mind  that 
our  knowledge  of  the  development  consists  in  the 
realisation  of  movement  rather  than  steps,  of  tendencies 
rather  than  times,  in  the  life  history  of  a  human  being. 
To  endeavour  to  fix  the  exact  times  at  which  exact 
amounts  of  development  take  place  is  likely  to  prove 
even  more  mischievous  than  inaccurate.  At  the  same 
time,  our  ideas  and  actions  would  become  chaotic  if  we 
fail  to  recognise  and  allow  for  the  practically  infinite 
similarities  of  nature  and  development  amongst  indivi- 
duals of  the  same  kind  or  class. 

Whilst  it  is  impossible  to  trace  in  details  the  different 
items  of  development  from  one  stage  to  another,  yet  it 
is  quite  easy,  in  most  cases,  to  know  that  an  individual 
has  or  has  not  reached  one  or  other  of  those  important 
periods  which  have  been  mentioned,  by  the  fact  that  he 


200  EDUCATION 

is  able  to  do  certain  characteristic  mental  and  physical 
work.  Whilst  there  is  a  period  when  a  person  seems 
to  be  neither  quite  a  girl  nor  a  woman,  a  boy  nor  a  man, 
yet  this  is  followed  by  a  period  when  no  one  would 
hesitate  to  say  this  person  is  a  woman,  or  man,  and  not 
a  girl,  or  boy. 

Perhaps  the  most  important  characteristic  of  true 
development  is  the  increase  of  the  ability  to  do  more 
difficult,  profound,  and  complex  things.  At  first  only 
very  simple,  easy,  and  obvious  things  are  done.  When, 
some  measure  of  facility  and  accuracy  in  doing  these 
has  been  secured,  then  there  is  a  gradual  increase  in 
the  power  to  do  greater  and  higher  work.  This  is  true 
of  the  general  stages  of  development,  and  also  of  every 
complete  particular  development  and  each  of  its  parts. 

But  there  is  also  the  great  truth  that  life  includes 
decay  as  well  as  growth.  All  organisms  have  a  limit 
of  higher  organisation,  from  which,  sooner  or  later, 
proceed  disorganisation,  decay,  and  death.  This  is 
true  of  the  whole  and  of  its  parts,  and  the  extent  to 
which  the  whole  or  separate  parts  will  develop,  and  the 
time  when  they  will  begin  to  decay,  depend  upon  the 
native  vigoar  and  capacity  of  the  individual,  and  the 
chances  and  changes  of  life. 


CHAPTEE  V 

GENERAL  PRINCIPLES  OF   EDUCATION— (conttntierf) 

From  out  knowledge  of  the  chief  phases  of  mental 
development  come  some  of  the  most  important  of  all 
the  educational  principles.  It  will  be  at  once  recog- 
nised that  if  we  hold  that  education  is  the  science  of 
human  development  in  so  far  as  this  is  purposely 
determined  by  the  systematic  imparting  of  knowledge, 
then  the  order  of  development,  and  the  ordering  of 
instruction  so  as  to  best  aid  and  determine  it,  are  the 
two  points  with  which  education  has  most  to  do.  In 
fact  we  may  say  that  all  the  educational  principles 
directly  depend  upon,  or  are  related  to,  this  great  central 
consideration.  Every  principle  must  either  express 
some  aspect  of  this  truth,  or  be  regulated  by  it.  This 
will  appear  more  and  more  clearly  as  we  proceed  with 
our  discussion. 

The  Principle  of  Developmelht  — We  have  already 
insisted  that  it  is  necessary  to  have  continuity,  co- 
herence, system,  and  unity,  in  education,  so  that  we 
may  best  assist  the  mind  to  develop  according  to  its 
own  proper  nature.  It  is  just  as  essential  that  there 
should  be  diflferences  in  the  matter  and  manner  of  the 


202  EDUCATION 

educating  influences,  according  to  the  varying  char- 
acter and  force  of  the  mental  powers  at  the  diflferent 
stages  of  their  development.  Hence  we  have  this 
principle  of  development. 

Eousseau  insisted  that  we  ought  to  "  let  infancy  ripen 
in  infants. "  And  Professor  Laurie  has  well  said : 
"  To  which  we  may  add  '  Let  boyhood  ripen  in  boys, 
youthhood  in  youths,  and  manhood  in  men. '  Do  not 
anticipate. "  Comenius  regarded  the  period  of  the  com- 
plete education  of  youth  as  extending  from  the  first  to 
the  twenty-fourth  year.  He  divides  this  into  four 
periods  of  six  years  and  prescribes  a  different,  but  de- 
pendent, work  for  each,  according  to  the  powers  and 
capacities  which  are  developing  during  each  period. 

The  best  way  of  practically  describing  development 
is  to  say  that  every  new  element  in  a  thing,  whether 
of  quality  or  quantity,  grows  out  of  what  was  pre- 
viously present,  and  grows  into  that  which  is  after- 
wards present.  This  great  truth  is  popularly  expressed 
in  several  generally  accepted  educational  maxims ;  it 
will  be  convenient,  therefore,  to  discuss  the  principle  in 
connection  with  these. 

1.  From  the  Known  to  the  Unknown.  —  This  is  the 
usual  form  of  the  rule,  but,  since  we  can  never  fully 
know  all  about  a  thing,  and  certainly  cannot  proceed 
straight  to  the  knowledge  of  the  entirely  unknown,  it 
would  be  better  to  say :  from  the  more  or  less  known 
to  the  more  or  less  unknown.  The  real  meaning  is 
that  we  must  first  discover  all  the  known  details  in  a 
fresh  experience,  and  use  them  as  means  of  understand- 
ing those  which  are  new.     Since  a  whole  is  but  a 


GENERAL  PRINCIPLES.  203 

union  and  unity  of  its  parts,  the  more  we  know  of  the 
latter  the  greater  chance  there  is  of  understanding  the 
whole. 

The  same  point  is  involved  in  the  principle  of  inter- 
relation and  inter-dependence,  which  is  really  only  a 
special  aspect  of  the  principle  of  development.  The 
foundation  of  both  is  the  fact  that  the  meaning  of  every 
new  experience  depends  very  largely  upon  the  power 
of  interpretation  given  by  past  experiences.  In  other 
words  presentations  always  involve  re-presentations. 

A  simple  illustration  of  this  is  seen  in  the  case  of 
a  child  meeting  with  a  giraffe  for  the  first  time. 
Doubtless,  at  first,  the  child  would  be  filled  with  the 
most  intense  astonishment,  if  not  terror.  But  it  will 
soon  recognise  that  it  is  a  living  thing  with  four  legs, 
a  body,  a  tail,  a  neck,  a  head,  two  eyes,  two  ears,  a 
nose,  and  a  mouth.  This  will  enable  it  to  class  the 
object  as  an  animal,  and  a  quadruped.  It  will  then 
be  able  to  give  its  attention  to  the  chief  elements  of 
difference,  which  are  the  size  and  proportion  of  the 
well-known  details.  From  this  it  can  be  easily  led 
to  form  some  correct  ideas  of  the  habitat,  and  habits, 
of  the  girajffe. 

Every  child  is,  mentally,  full  of  almost  infinite 
details  of  elementary  knowledge,  that  is,  of  mental  im- 
pressions, left  by  the  experiences  which  have  happened 
to  it  Before  ever  a  human  being  can  definitely  affect 
a  child  through  the  properly  educative  influences,  it 
has  been  subjected  to  innumerable  influences,  which 
have  left  important  and  lasting  effects.  Were  this  not 
so  the  educator  could  not  do  a  thousandth  part  of  what 


204  EDUCATION 

is  ordinarily  done  by  him.  It  is  only  as  this  inevitable 
knowledge  of  the  child  is  clearly  recognised  and  made 
use  of  that  early  education  can  be  as  effective  or 
extensive  as  it  might  be. 

"  Jean  Paul  says  of  the  child,  that  it  learns  more  in 
the  first  three  years  of  its  life  than  an  adult  in  his  three 
years  at  the  university ;  that  a  circumnavigator  of  the 
globe  is  indebted  for  more  notions  to  his  nurse  than  to 
all  the  peoples  of  the  world  with  whom  he  has  come  in 
contact  It  is,  in  fact,  astounding  what  a  relatively 
immense  crowd  of  ideas  a  human  being  gains  in  the 
first  years.  He  gets  acquainted  with  a  thousand  things 
of  home,  street,  garden,  field,  wood,  the  wonders  of  the 
heavens,  the  manifold  events  of  nature,  the  land  and 
the  people  of  the  neighbourhood,  and  learns  to  call  most 
of  them  by  name ;  he  learns  to  use  a  great  part  of  the 
vocabulary  of  his  mother  tongue,  and  its  most  impor- 
tant forms  of  word  and  sentence ;  he  learns  to  think  in 
the  vernacular  "  (Dr.  Karl  Lange). 

To  directly  base  formal  education  upon  such  facts  is 
most  likely  to  arouse  interest  in  the  learner,  for  it  is 
calculated  to  make  him  feel  that  what  he  already  knows 
is  practically  useful  and  able  to  bring  more  knowledge 
and  greater  power.  The  ability  to  make  accurate  and 
deeper  judgments  depends  upon  the  readiness  and 
fulness  with  which  we  make  comparisons,  and  the 
kind  of  standard  with  which  we  compare.  If  we  fail 
to  find  many  connections  between  the  new  and  the 
old,  it  is  not  possible  to  make  many  judgments. 

Let  it  not  be  forgotten  that  the  most  familiar  is 
often  the  least  known.     The  farm  labourer  who  sees 


GENERAL   PRINCIPLES  205 

80  much  of  many  kinds  of  plants  and  flowers  gene- 
rally knows  least  about  them,  in  the  way  of  formal 
knowledge.  At  the  same  time,  such  a  familiarity 
with  certain  objects  is  the  best  possible  starting  point 
for  scientific  knowledge.  Nothing  becomes  known  to 
us  in  a  full  and  significant  sense  unless,  and  until,  we 
thoroughly  and  carefully  observe  and  reflect  upon  its 
parts  and  powers  in  their  detail  and  unity. 

This  rule  applies  equally  to  experiences,  knowledge, 
thoughts,  actions,  and  words.  Dr.  Bain  has  well  said 
that:  "If  a  demonstration  proceeds  upon  principles 
not  already  understood ;  if  a  description  contains  terms 
with  no  meaning  to  the  person  addressed ;  if  directions 
involve  acts  that  have  not  been  previously  performed, 
the  upshot  is  a  failure." 

The  following  are  examples  of  progress  from  the 
known  to  the  unknown.  A  little  child  may  be  taught 
many  things  about  the  cat  in  its  own  home.  Then 
other  cats  of  the  same  kind,  in  other  homes,  may  be 
considered.  This  will  widen  its  knowledge  of  the  animal 
and  of  homes.  Afterwards  another  species  of  cat,  which 
is  met  with  in  the  same  neighbourhood,  can  be  studied 
in  a  similar  way.  This  should  be  followed  by  species 
met  with  in  England,  but  not  in  the  child's  locality. 
Thus  some  foreign  kinds  will  be  introduced.  Prom  tame 
cats  to  wild  cats  may  be  the  next  step.  Knowledge  of 
the  habitat,  and  habits,  of  the  latter  will  prepare  the 
way  for  learning  about  the  tiger.  So  the  series  can 
be  extended  to  any  convenient  extent;  and  at  any 
point  there  may  be  a  passage  from  knowledge  about 
the  animal  to  knowledge  about  its  surroundings,  prey, 


206  EDUCATION 

and  foes  (animal  and  human).  Hence  geography  and 
general  natural  history  may  be  dealt  with. 

Also  from  the  same  starting  point  another  series 
may  be  followed.  When  some  knowledge  of  a  cat 
has  been  obtained  through  observation  and  talk,  this 
may  be  used  as  a  basis  for  getting  a  knowledge  of  the 
signs  for  spoken  words,  through  a  reading  lesson. 
This  in  turn  will  serve  as  a  reason  for  learning  about 
the  way  of  forming  the  necessary  symbols,  through 
lessons  in  drawing  and  writing,  which  give  the  oppor- 
tunity for  proceeding  from  the  representative  (outline 
of  the  animal)  to  the  conventional  (word)  sign.  The 
arrangement  of  the  legs  of  the  animal  supply  the 
material  for  a  systematic  number  lesson.  The  language 
material  will,  later  on,  serve  as  the  subject-matter  for 
grammar  lessons.  Similarly  all  the  subjects  usually 
employed  may  be  quite  naturally  led  up  to. 

The  general  nature  of  what  will,  as  a  rule,  be  known 
by  the  individual  at  certain  periods  of  his  life  has  been 
pointed  out  in  the  previous  chapter.  Knowledge,  of  the 
kind  appropriate  to  the  different  stages,  about  all  the 
ordinary  natural  phenomena  and  common  objects,  such 
as :  air,  light,  weather,  trees,  flowers,  fruits,  vegetables, 
household  furniture,  clothing,  and  so  on,  may  be  taken 
for  granted  in  every  case.  Of  course  there  will  be 
differences  of  detail  in  knowledge  in  the  cases  of  town 
children  and  country  children,  and  those  who  live  in 
manufacturing,  agricultural,  seaside,  or  mining  districts ; 
and  there  will  also  be  individual  differences  as  to  the 
details  of  knowledge  of  those  who  live  in  the  same  dis- 
trict, or  even  in  the  same  house.     The  wealth  or  poverty 


GENERAL  PRINCIPLES  207 

of  parents,  and  their  different  occupations,  wil]  mean 
variety  in  the  details  of  the  immediate  sarroundings  of 
the  children. 

Nevertheless  theVe  is  always  a  substantial  and  con- 
siderable amount  of  common  knowledge  which,  for  all 
practical  purposes,  may  be  taken  as  possessed  by  all,  in 
the  same  sense.  House,  horse,  butter,  bread,*  chair, 
field,  water,  and  practically  innumerable  other  objects 
have  the  same  meaning  for  all,  and  offer  common 
sources  of  knowledge-influences  in  formal  education. 
The  elements  of  individual  differences  in  knowledge 
must  be  related  to  the  common  items  and  used  as  illus- 
trations and  examples. 

2.  From  the  Simple  to  the  Complex. — This  again  is 
a  rule  which  directly  depends  upon  the  nature  of 
development  as  such.  "Milk  for  babes  and  strong 
meat  for  men,"  has  beeu  a  long-recognised  proverbial 
truth.  There  is  no  need  to  do  more  than  refer  to 
what  has  been  already  said  about  the  gradual  increase 
of  the  mental,  and  bodily,  powers  in  support  of  this 
practical  rule. 

The  only  real  difficulty  in  the  matter  is  to  decide  as 
to  what  is  simple,  and  how  to  proceed  so  as  to  solve 
the  complex  by  the  simple  additions  of  simples,  in  so 
far  as  this  may  be  possible. 

It  is  probably  true  to  say  that  all  that  is  possible  for 
the  human  mind  to  know  possesses  difficulty  mainly  in 
so  far  as  it  is  complex,  intricate,  and  incapable  of  being 
presented  and  grasped  in  simple  separate  details.  In 
other  words,  the  greatest  of  all  difficulties  is  that  of  com- 
plexity.   Hence,  the  function  of  the  educator  is  to  take 


208  EDUCATION 

every  means  of  resolving  things  into  their  simplest 
elements,  and  to  present  these  in  gradually  increasing 
complexity,  and  in  such  relations  that  the  total  complex 
is  most  clearly  and  fully  realised  and  understood. 

But  this  is  always  subject  to  the  condition  that  the 
whole  complex  has,  in  a  superficial  and  elementary- 
sense,  first  been  grasped.  It  is  not  possible  to  under- 
stand the  nature  of  a  part  of  a  whole  unless  some 
general  idea  of  the  whole  has  been  formed.  Of  this  we 
shall  have  more  to  say  in  the  chapter  on  the  develop- 
ment of  knowledge. 

Simplicity  and  directness  are  the  chief  elements  of 
helpfulness  to  a  learner.  Each  new  point  must  be 
clear  in  itself,  and  in  its  relation  to  those  other  parts 
which  are  immediately  connected  with  it.  Every  fresh 
item  of  knowledge  must  be  of  a  kind  that  the  pupil 
can  apprehend,  and  must  not  try  his  powers  beyond 
their  strength.  That  is  to  say:  both  quality  and 
quantity  must  be  suitable. 

Comenius  puts  this  point  very  happily  when  he  says  : 
"  Most  teachers  sow  plants  instead  of  seeds ;  do  not  pro- 
ceed from  most  simple  principles." 

Of  course  the  word  simple  is  a  purely  relative  term. 
What  is  simple  to  the  philosopher  may  be  extremely 
complex  to  the  practical  man,  and  conversely.  What 
is  simple  to  the  child  is  complex  to  the  infant.  Perhaps 
the  best  description  of  the  simple  is  :  that  which  is  well- 
known,  familiar,  and  under  such  control  that  it  can,  as 
a  rule,  be  readily  and  accurately  applied  either  in  theory 
or  practice.  It  is  clear  that  such  knowledge  will  form 
a  safe  and  sure  basis  for  advance. 


GENERAL  PRINCIPLES  209 

The  first  thing  to  do,  therefore,  is  to  find  out  what 
knowledge  of  such  a  character  the  learner  has  in  relation 
to  the  knowledge  which  it  is  desirable  for  him  to  possess, 
and  what  power  in  applying  it.  The  general  character 
of  the  knowledge  possessed  at  certain  stages  of  develop- 
ment has  been  described  in  the  previous  chapter.  The 
particular  items  of  knowledge  will  be  according  to  the 
special  experiences  and  training  of  the  individual. 

What  we  may  call  the  order  of  greatest  simplicity 
will  be  best  obtained  by  first  taking  wholes  which  are 
made  up  of  simple  units.  The  whole  should  be  carefully 
analysed  and  the  relation  of  each  of  the  parts  to  the 
others  in  the  total  complex  mastered.  Then  the  nature 
and  special  qualities  of  each  part  should  be  dealt  with. 
Then  we  may  go  on  to  the  analysing  of  more  complex 
wholes  into  groups  of  significant  units,  and  when  the 
general  character  and  relation  of  these  have  been 
mastered,  treating  these  groups  in  a  similar  way.  In 
other  words  we  should  carefully  observe  the  principle 
of  graduated  difficulty. 

Probably  there  is  no  more  severe  test  of  the  true 
educator  than  his  method  of  demonstrating  the  complex. 
A  catalogue  of  the  elements  involved  in  a  complex  is 
of  very  little,  if  any,  help  to  the  understanding  of  the 
whole.  K  a  clockmaker  should  begin  to  instruct  an 
apprentice  by  telling  him  the  names  of  every  separate 
part  of  a  clock,  he  would  most  likely  make  confusion 
worse  confounded  in  the' mind  of  his  pupil.  The  most 
helpful  method  would  be  to  proceed  in  some  such  way 
as  the  following. 

Let  us  suppose  that  we  wish  to  impart  knowledge 

0 


210  EDUCATION 

about  a  certain  complex.  We  will  further  assume  that 
this  is  an  object  which  consists  of  three  principal  parts, 
and  that  these  parts  consist  of  several  smaller  parts,  each 
of  which  has  three  or  four  units  of  detail.  The  first  thing 
is  to  get  a  good  general  idea  of  the  whole,  and  then  of 
each  of  the  three  principal  parts.  The  learner  must 
know  in  what  way  these  three  parts  make  up  the  whole, 
and  what  are  their  general  characteristics  and  relations. 
Much  of  this  will  be  best  learnt  by  taking  the  object, 
or  a  model  of  it,  and  separating  the  three  parts,  and 
then  putting  them  together  again. 

When  so  much  has  been  mastered,  so  that  it  has 
become  clear  and  simple  to  the  learner,  then  the  lesser 
parts  should  be  treated  in  a  similar  way.  And,  after 
these  have  been  learnt,  then  their  details  can  be  dealt 
with.  Thus  the  order  of  simplicity  is :  from  the  whole 
to  the  chief  parts,  then  to  the  lesser  parts,  and  finally 
to  the  details  of  these.  The  relation  of  each  unit, 
whether  a  group  or  an  individual,  to  the  whole  must 
always  be  insisted  upon ;  and  each  step  must  be 
thoroughly  known  before  the  next  is  attempted. 

In  this  way  the  mind  gets  knowledge  most  easily, 
clearly,  and  accurately,  and  acquires  a  method  in  its 
work  which  greatly  economises  its  energy,  and  makes 
possible  what  would  otherwise  not  be  so. 

Thus  there  are  two  things  to  be  decided,  firstly,  what 
are  the  elements  and  relations  of  the  knowledge  complex, 
and,  secondly,  what  are  the  powers  and  present  know- 
ledge of  the  learner.  True  knowledge  is  a  growth,  not 
an  accumulation ;  and  a  child's  mind  resembles  a 
developing  plant,  not  an  empty  sack.     The  mind  is  an 


GENERAL   PRINCIPLES  211 

organ  which  requires  to  be  well  and  wisely  provided 
with  appetising  food ;  but  it  mnst  do  its  own  eating, 
digesting,  and  assimilating. 

The  educator  must  always  endeavour  so  to  arrange 
the  work  of  the  learner  that  each  component  part  of  a 
whole,  its  nature  and  detail,  and  its  relation  to  the 
whole,  is  most  easily  observed,  understood,  and  remem- 
bered. The  movement  of  thought  and  knowledge  is 
from  wholes  to  their  parts  and  powers,  until  the  wholes 
are  somewhat  fully  known.  Through  such  a  know- 
ledge of  individual  wholes  all  those  belonging  to  the 
same  class  or  kind  are  known. 

Mr.  Herbert  Spencer  remarks  on  this  maxim  :  "  The 
mind  develops.  Like  all  things  that  develop  it  pro- 
gresses from  the  homogeneous  to  the  heterogeneous; 
and  a  normal  training  system,  being  an  objective 
counterpart  of  this  subjective  process,  must  exhibit  a 

like  progression Not  only  in  its  details  should 

education  proceed  from  the  simple  to  the  complex,  but 
in  its  ensemble  also." 

One  of  the  most  valuable  practical  applications  of 
this  rule  is  found  in  connecting  all  the  early  knowledge 
lessons  with  the  experiences  and  objects  of  the  home 
life.  Every  home  is  the  world  in  miniature,  just  as 
every  person  is  humanity  in  the  little.  Geography  can 
be  developed  from  the  home  surroundings,  natural 
history  from  the  domestic  animals,  and  so  on.  The 
aim  must  always  be  to  widen  the  field  of  knowledge. 
As  Pestalozei  says:  "The  circle  of  knowledge  com- 
mences close  round  a  man  and  from  thence  stretches 
oat  concentrically." 


212  EDUCATION 

For  all  general  and  practical  purposes  tte  simple 
may  be  taken  to  be  that  whicli  properly  belongs  to  the 
period  of  development  in  which  the  individual  then  is, 
and  with  which  he  is  actually  familiar  both  with  re- 
spect to  experience  and  knowledge.  The  complex  will, 
from  this  point  of  view,  be  that  which  is  unfamiliar  to, 
or  in  advance  of,  the  present  state  of  development  of 
the  individual. 

Some  most  interesting  evidence  of  the  development 
of  the  power  to  grasp  the  simple  and  the  complex  is 
found  in  the  history  of  the  idea  of  number.  One 
African  tribe  has  been  found  to  have  a  separate  name 
only  for  one  object,  any  number  of  objects  more  than 
one  being  called  many.  The  Bushmen  could  not  count 
beyond  two ;  other  tribes  have  different  words  for  one 
and  two,  but  then  proceed  to  combine  these  thus :  two- 
one,  two-two,  two-two-one,  two-two-two.  Many  savage 
races  are  unable  to  count  the  fingers  of  one  hand. 

3.  From  the  Concrete  to  the  Abstract. — ^This  practical 
maxim  is  the  most  directly  expressive  of  the  principle 
of  development.  It  covers,  in  a  general  way,  all  that 
has  been  said  about  the  three  great  stages  of  develop- 
ment ;  and,  therefore,  has  the  very  highest  meaning  and 
authority  for  the  practical  educator.  Comenius  says  : 
'*  First,  the  senses  should  be  exercised  ;  then  the  memory, 
then  the  understanding,  and  lastly,  the  judgment." 
Interpreted  according  to  modem  psychology,  this  ex- 
pression is  a  good  way  of  stating  the  matter. 

First  educate  the  senses.  This  is  the  truth  which  is 
insisted  upon  by  this  rule.  That  most  ancient  of  all 
philosophical  and  educational  truths :  "  there  is  nothing 


GENERAL  PRINCIPLES  213 

in  the  mind  which  is  not  first  in  the  senses/'  must  be 
recognised  and  realised  from  the  very  first  The  abstract 
can,  primarily,  come  only  through,  and  out  of,  the 
concrete.     No  concrete,  no  abstract,  is  the  condition. 

Rousseau  is  the  great  apostle  of  this  truth.  But  like 
many  great  pioneers  of  scientific  thought  he  has  ex- 
aggerated the  principle,  and  urged  it  to  the  exclusion 
of  others  which  are  equally  important.  He  says :  "  The 
first  faculties  which  are  formed  and  perfected  in  us  are 
the  senses.  These,  then,  are  the  first  which  should  be 
cultivated." 

There  is  nothing  for  the  mind  to  exercise  its  power 
upon  until  the  senses  bring  it  impressions.  Clearly, 
therefore,  the  more  effective  and  extensive  are  the 
powers  of  the  senses,  the  wider  and  deeper  are  the 
powers  of  the  mind  likely  to  be.  The  need  and  advan- 
tages of  the  cultivation  of  the  senses  are  obvious  when 
we  consider  the  clumsy  and  inaccurate  manner  of  their 
early  use,  as  compared  with  the  delicate  and  exact  work 
which  they  can  do  after  careful  training. 

An  adult  who  had  been  bom  blind,  but  had,  after  an 
operation,  recovered  his  sight,  thought,  at  first,  that 
everything  was  actually  touching  his  eyes.  It  was 
some  little  time  before  he  could  visually  mark  off  one 
thing  from  another.  Like  the  blind  man  of  old  he 
would  "  see  men  as  trees,  walking."  With  this  may  be 
compared  the  effects  of  suddenly  waking  up  in  strange 
surroundings,  and  the  coming  out  of  a  railway  tunnel 
into  broad  daylight,  as  showing  the  need  of  experience 
and  control  in  the  use  of  the  eyes. 

So  it  is  with  all  the  senses.    Through  careful  training 


214  EDUCATION 

the  eye  gets  an  almost  telescopic  range  and  microscopic 
power ;  the  ear  learns  to  discriminate  minute  differences 
of  pitch  and  tone ;  the  hand  decides  between  delicate 
shades  of  texture  and  temperature ;  the  taste  appreciates 
refinements  of  flavour;  the  sense  of  smell  accurately 
identifies  many  odours ;  and  the  muscular  sense  esti- 
mates very  small  differences  of  weight  and  effort. 

Dr.  Isambard  Owen  has  suggested  in  an  address 
to  the  students  of  St.  George's  Hospital  Medical 
School,  that  school-children  should  *^be  trained  in 
numerical  perception  till  forty,  let  us  say,  could  be 
as  easily  distinguished  from  fifty  as  four  from  five, 
and  line,  surface,  and  area  estimated  with  similar 
exactness." 

Whilst  the  principle  involved  in  this  is  a  very  sound 
and  valuable  one,  the  application  is  probably  far  too 
wide  for  general  purposes.  It  would  take  too  much 
time  and  effort  to  attain  to  such  a  power ;  it  would  be 
of  comparatively  little  practical  use,  and  the  loss  in 
other  directions  would  be  too  great  a  price  to  pay  for  it. 
Some  few  specialists  might  find  it  worth  while,  but  the 
ordinary  man  would  lose  more  than  he  gained.  It  is  a 
practical  necessity,  and  a  constant  advantage,  for  a  pro- 
fessional accountant  to  be  able  to  add  up  five  or  six 
columns  of  figures  simultaneously,  but  the  man  in  the 
street  has  not  often  to  do  such  work,  and  cannot  afford 
tjo  acquire  such  a  facility. 

Our  senses  are  certainly  somewhat  neglected  from 
this  point  of  view,  but  we  must  beware  of  the  other 
extreme.  Education  is  as  much  concerned  to  avoid 
total   or  proportional  over-development,  as  general  or 


GENERAX  PRINCIPLES  215 

relative  under-development.  The  mental  power  de- 
rived from  the  ability  to  estimate  the  number  of  in- 
dividuals in  a  group  is  hardly  of  much  rational  value, 
and  the  practical  advantage  is  limited  and  special. 
More  training  is  wanted,  but  not  too  much,  for  ordinary 
purposes. 

As  Rousseau  says :  "  To  call  into  exercise  the  senses, 
is,  so  to  speak,  to  learn  to  feel;  for  we  can  neither 
touch,  nor  see,  nor  hear,  except  as  we  have  been  taught." 
It  would  be  better  to  say  that  we  cannot  touch,  see,  or 
hear  with  scientific  fulness  and  accuracy  unless  we  have 
been  well  taught  and  trained.  The  truth  of  this  will 
need  no  demonstration  to  those  who  have  had  a  good 
training  in  practical  science. 

According  to  the  correctness  and  completeness  of  our 
sensations  will  be  the  precision  and  depth  of  our  judg- 
ments and  reasonings  about  things.  The  minuteness 
and  comprehensiveness  of  modem  scientific  research 
show  most  conclusively  that  those  who  are  well  ac- 
quainted with  details  are,  as  a  rule,  best  qualified  to 
form  sound  and  faivreaching  judgments  about  matters. 

It  may  be  said,  in  general  terms,  that  if  one  person 
uses  his  senses  more  accurately  than  another  he  is 
likely  also  to  use  his  judgment  and  reason  more  accu- 
rately with  regard  to  physical  objects.  To  put  the 
point  in  another  way :  one  who  has  good  sight  will  be 
likely  to  form  more  correct  judgments  about  the  ap- 
pearances of  things  than  one  who  is  short-sighted.  The 
same  kind  of  thing  is  true  of  the  other  senses  indi- 
vidually, and  the  truth  is  still  more  emphasised  in  those 
general  judgments  aboat  objects  which  are  based  upon 


216  EDUCATION 

the  materials  given  by  the  co-operation  of  all  the  senses. 
The  senses  both  supplement  and  correct  each  other,  so 
that  the  weakness  of  one  is  an  element  of  weakness  in 
all  the  others. 

The  wonderful  precision  of  sense  discrimination  which 
can  be  obtained  by  training  is  well  shown  in  the  cases 
of  the  blind  and  deaf  mutes.  Deaf  mutes  are,  so  to 
speak,  taught  to  hear  with  their  eyes  and  sense  of 
touch ;  whilst  the  blind  learn  to  see  with  their  ears  and 
hands. 

Only  from  correct  observations  of  the  forms,  materials, 
actions,  and  the  concrete  results  of  actions,  can  we  form 
right  judgments  about  the  qualities  and  powers  of 
things.  Hence  the  absolute  necessity  of  first  obtaining 
extensive  and  exact  experiences.  To  get  these  we  must 
have  powerful  and  well-trained  senses.  Thus  we  are 
led  to  take  the  most  careful  account  of  the  psychology 
of  the  senses,  hygiene,  and  physical  training,  for  pur- 
poses of  practical  education. 

Another  reason  for  first  dealing  with  the  concrete,  in 
the  case  of  children,  is  that,  as  M.  Gr6ard  says :  "  The 
child  is  bom  with  the  desire  to  observe  and  know.  The 
interior  life  being  not  yet  awakened  in  him,  he  belongs 
entirely  to  the  phenomena  of  the  exterior  world.  All  his 
senses  are  on  the  alert ;  all  the  objects  that  his  sight  or  his 
hand  encounters  attract  him,  interest  him,  delight  him." 
Thus  the  principle  of  interest  demands  this  order. 

The  foregoing  all  tends  to  confirm  the  opinion  that 
the  elements  of  natural  science  are  the  most  appro- 
priate and  fruitful  educative  influences  in  the  earliest 
stages  of  education.    Such  influences  are  always  acting 


GENERAL  PEINCIPLBS  217 

upon  the  child,  easy  to  systemise,  and  pleasurable  in 
their  effects.  What  the  individual  consciously  and 
constantly  experiences  must  be  known  more  or  less 
fully  and  accurately.  It  is  the  educator's  function  to 
secure  the  conditions  which  are  favourable  to  the 
greatest  fulness  and  accuracy  in  knowing.  Of  course 
such  knowledge  must  be  imparted  by  means  of  practical 
observations,  experiments,  and  investigations. 

Mr.  Herbert  Spencer  lays  down  the  principle  that: 
"Every  study  ....  should  have  a  purely  experimental 
introduction ;  and  only  after  an  ample  fund  of  observa- 
tions has  been  accumulated,  should  reasoning  begin." 

Whilst,  however,  this  third  practical  rule  is  the  very 
oomer-stone  of  educational  order,  the  usual  form  of 
expressing  it  does  not  suggest  all  its  implications.  In 
the  first  place,  the  educator  must  confine  his  efforts  to 
imparting  knowledge  in  its  concrete  or  purely  practical 
form  during  the  first  stage  of  development.  That  is, 
the  first  form  of  the  rule  should  be :  from  the  concrete 
to  the  concrete.  There  must  be  no  attempt  to  give 
abstract  ideas  of  the  qualities  and  powers  of  things,  in  a 
definite  and  explicit  manner.  Of  course  the  abstract 
elements  must  necessarily  be  involved  in  the  experi- 
ences, but  they  are  entirely  unrecognised  by  the  indi- 
vidual whilst  he  is  in  the  first  stage  of  development. 

"  We  should  provide  for  the  infant  a  suflSciency  of 
objects  presenting  different  degrees  and  kinds  of  resist- 
ance, a  suflSciency  of  objects  reflecting  different  amounts 
and  qualities  of  light,  and  a  suflSciency  of  sounds  con- 
trasted in  their  loudness,  their  pitch,  and  their  timbre. 
....  Moreover,  as  these  simplest  elements  have  to  be 


218  EDUCATION 

mastered,  and  as  the  mastery  of  them  whenever 
achieved  must  take  time,  it  becomes  an  economy  of 
time  to  occupy  this  first  stage  of  childhood,  during 
which  no  other  intellectual  action  is  possible,  in  gaining 
a  complete  familiarity  with  them  in  all  their  modifica- 
tions "  (Mr.  Herbert  Spencer). 

Towards  the  end  of  the  second  stage  of  development 
the  educator  should  endeavour  to  get  the  pupil  to 
consciously  and  clearly  recognise  the  abstract  element 
of  knowledge.  What  has  always  been  implicit  should 
now  be  made  explicit.  It  is  to  this  period,  therefore, 
that  the  rule,  as  ordinarily  expressed,  most  fully 
applies. 

But  when  the  third  stage  of  development  is  reached 
the  learner  is  in  the  world  of  the  purely  rational,  and 
should  be  able  to  carry  out  processes  of  abstract  reason- 
ings. The  inter-connection  and  inter-dependence  of 
truths  are  now  discovered  by  the  activities  of  pure 
thought.  So  the  rule  must  now  read :  from  the  abstract 
to  the  abstract. 

This  must  not,  however,  be  understood  as  implying 
that  we  can  entirely  confine  ourselves  to  the  world  of 
the  abstract.  As  Dr.  Karl  Lange  points  out :  "  As  the 
tree  must  wither  whose  cells  are  not  refilled  with  fresh 
sap  every  spring,  so  would  also  our  abstract  concepts 
die  away  and  turn  to  empty  shells,  if  we  did  not  ever 
fill  them  with  material  derived  from  living  sense  per- 
ceptions. In  this  way  the  perceptions  acquired  by  the 
child  in  his  youth  help  to  master  and  secure  the  abstract  • 
ideas.     This  is  shown  by  still  another  consideration. 

**  As  is  well  known,  all  abstract  ideas  are  denoted  by 


GENERAL  PRINCIPLES  219 

words  that  originally  applied  only  to  concrete  things,  to 
activities  and  relations  of  the  outer  world.  Of  coarse 
this  transference  did  not  take  place  entirely  arbitrarily, 
but  words  were  mostly  chosen  that  referred  to  a  simi- 
larity or  to  certain  relations  between  the  concrete  and 
the  abstract  idea.  One  that  has  the  concrete  ideas  in 
question  vividly  present,  will  necessarily  unlock  the 
abstract  ideas  more  easily  and  fully." 

This  inter-action  between  the  concrete  and  the  ab- 
stract must  ever  be  maintained  if  we  wish  to  obtain  the 
highest  value  of  either.  Doubtless,  in  later  life,  a  man 
can,  BO  to  put  it,  mentally  live  upon  the  stores  of  pre- 
vious experience,  but  if  he  endeavours  to  confine  himself 
wholly  to  these  his  reasonings  will  tend  to  gradually 
become  more  and  more  remote  from  actualities,  and, 
therefore,  less  and  less  accurate  and  reliabla 

Finally,  if  the  mind  has  su£Scient  native  power  and 
capacity  for  the  work  of  discovery  and  invention,  then 
it  is  able  to  proceed  by  what  we  have  paradoxically 
spoken  of  as  regressive  advance.  By  this  we  mean  the 
reasoning  backwards  from  abstract  principles  to  con- 
crete facts,  as  when  a  scientist  reasons  out  a  new  theory 
from  the  principles  of  mechanics  and  then  invents 
machinery  to  illustrate  it.  Now,  therefore,  the  form 
of  expression  should  be:  from  the  abstract  to  the 
concrete,  or,  to  put  it  more  exactly :  from  abstract  ideas 
to  their  concrete  implications. 

We  may  exemplify  the  above  by  taking  the  case  of 
geography  used  as  an  educative  influence.  The  first 
step  would  be  to  get  the  learner  to  know,  in  the  sense 
of  being  acquainted  with  the  general  appearance  and 


220  EDUCATION 

locality  of,  the  diflEerent  geographical  features  in  his 
home  surroandings,  and  to  associate  with  these  the 
right  names  and  verbal  descriptions. 

Then  the  same  facts  should  be  known  in  detail.  The 
bed,  banks,  source,  basin,  mouth,  of  the  stream  or  river : 
the  base,  summit,  slope,  height,  material,  of  the  hill  or 
mountain :  and  so  on,  should  be  known  and  described. 
Practical  judgments  about  these  should  be  made,  and 
communicated.  These  might  be  about  the  practical 
uses,  character,  and  relations  of  the  different  features : 
the  river  as  a  means  of  irrigation,  communication, 
and  propelling  force  (water-mills) ;  the  mountain  as  a 
watershed,  protection  from  cold  winds,  and  source  of 
minerals ;  the  relations  which  exist  between  mountains 
and  rivers,  as  to  the  source,  current,  direction,  and  size 
of  the  latter.  The  connection  of  physical  with  political 
and  commercial  geography  should  be  worked  out. 

Principles  may  next  be  dealt  with.  The  various 
physical,  chemical,  mechanical,  and  other  principles 
which  are  involved  in  such  phenomena  as  evaporation, 
denudation,  climate,  atmospheric  movements,  &c.,  will 
have  to  be  considered  when  the  mental  powers  are 
sufficiently  developed  to  grasp  them.  Finally,  the 
learner  may  be  invited  to  use  his  knowledge  and  train- 
ing for  the  purpose  of  working  out  solutions  of  pro- 
blems concerning  geographical  phenomena ;  as,  for 
example,  in  an  attempt  to  work  out  the  geographical 
history  of  the  home  locality  from  its  configuration. 

The  plan  of  thus  working  backwards  from  given 
conditions  to  mental  conclusions,  or  practical  concrete 
solutions — as  in  making  a  new  kind  of  article  according 


GENERAL   PRINCIPLES  221 

to  a  given  model,  or  detailed  description — shonld  be 
employed  whenever  practicable.  It  is  the  severest  and 
best  test  of  intelligent  apprehension,  and  gives  the 
most  convincing  and  conclusive  evidence  of  success  or 
failure  of  mental  grasp  and  practical  power.  Each 
stage  of  progress,  and  each  item  in  it,  will  generally 
admit  of  some  form  or  other  of  this  kind  of  work. 
Very  considerable  differences  of  degrees  of  difficulty 
can  be  arranged  so  that  all  may  be  submitted  to  it. 

When  the  results  of  such  work  are  consistently  satis- 
tory  in  individual  cases,  it  will  be  safe  to  assume  that 
right  judgment  or  actions  concerning  certain  matters 
have  been  acquired,  and,  if  these  have  had  time  to  be- 
come more  or  less  habitual,  the  individual  is  in  a  fit 
condition  for  attempting  more  advanced  work. 

The  three  rules :  from  the  known  to  the  unknown, 
from  the  simple  to  the  complex,  and  from  the  concrete 
to  the  abstract,  apply  as  much  to  the  quality,  quantity, 
and  form  of  educative  influences  as  to  the  order  of  the 
development  of  the  mental  powers.  We  may  say  that 
experiences  only  should  first  be  used,  and  names  for 
things  and  actions  given ;  then  experiences  should  be 
followed  by  original  and  suggested  judgments,  and  the 
understanding  of  items  of  information ;  and,  finally, 
original  and  suggested  reasonings  should  be  gone 
through.  As  Herbart  puts  it,  we  must  proceed  from 
the  empirical  to  the  speculative,  and  thence  to  the 
(SBsthetic,  and  so  make  the  material  arouse  those  in- 
terests which  predominate  at  different  periods. 

In  application  the  influences  will  appear  in  the 
form  of  dictation,  demonstration,  suggestion,  and  dogma. 


222  EDUCATION 

That  is  to  say,  the  first  means  of  imparting  knowledge, 
when  a  sufficient  command  of  language  has  been 
acquired  by  the  pupil,  will  be  by  bringing  him  into 
relation  with  objects  and  actions,  telling  him  what  are 
the  names  by  which  they  are  known,  and  giving  him  the 
simple  elements  of  knowledge  connected  with  them.  For 
example,  a  child  is  first  taught  to  play  little  games  with 
cubes.  It  is  then  taught  to  count  with  them,  and 
afterwards  it  is  guided  in  measuring  the  sides  and 
comers,  and  then  told  that  all  faces  of  things  which 
have  four  equal  straight  sides,  and  four  equal  corners, 
are  said  to  be  of  a  square  shape. 

Demonstration  will  consist  in  so  setting  forth  the 
parts,  connections,  and  relations  of  an  object,  that  the 
right  judgments  are  made  by  the  learners,  and  so  con- 
nected with  one  another  as  to  give  the  correct  idea  of 
the  whola  This  will  belong  to  the  latter  part  of  the 
first  stage  of  development,  and  all  subsequent  periods. 

Suggestion  involves  the  giving  of  such  preliminary 
knowledge,  and  so  much  of  the  new  knowledge,  as  will 
enable  a  pupil  to  complete,  more  or  less  fully,  the 
particular  whole  by  his  own  efforts.  Thus,  if  several 
species  of  a  certain  kind  of  plants  have  been  fully 
demonstrated,  then  a  general  sketch  of  past  work  and 
a  few  special  hints  as  to  a  new  species  of  the  same  class, 
ought  to  enable  a  pupil  to  obtain  a  knowledge  of 
that  species  by  his  own  investigations.  This  may  be 
regularly  used  towards  the  end  of  the  second  stage  of 
development,  and  subsequently. 

Dogma  should  mean  the  positive  statement  and 
acceptance  of  principles  which   have  been   rationally 


GENERAL   PRINCIPLES  223 

and  practically  demonstrated,  and  which  the  individual 
is  able  to  re-demonstrate  both  theoretically  and  practi- 
cally, if  the  latter  be  possible.  It  is  only  suitable,  as  a 
means  of  education,  for  those  who  have  reached  the 
stage  of  regressive  advance.  General  principles  are 
taken  as  the  basis  for  the  construction  of  deeper  and 
more  comprehensive  theories,  for  the  criticism  of 
theories,  and  for  guidance  in  research. 

Both  dictation  and  demonstration  will  be  best  accom- 
plished by  the  aid  of  spoken  language;  though  the 
former  may  to  some  extent,  and  the  latter  to  a  consider- 
able extent,  be  assisted  by  written  language,  so  long 
as  this  is  well  within  the  vocabulary  of  the  learner  and 
exactly  reflects  the  method  used  in  oral  exposition.  In 
suggestion  the  written  aids  may  predominate^  whilst  in 
dogma  nearly  everything  can  be  done  through  books. 
The  living  voice  and  the  personality  of  the  teacher  are, 
as  a  rale,  likely  to  prove  more  forcible,  attractive,  and 
helpful  in  special  difficulties;  whilst  the  written  word 
is  less  apt  to  prejudice  the  learner:  to  allow  him  to 
shirk  his  share  of  the  work :  to  provide  for  his  indi- 
vidual difficulties :  or  to  do  too  much  for  him. 

The  great  principle  of  development  applies  as  much 
to  particular  items  of  development  as  to  general  develop- 
ment :  to  the  parts  of  a  subject,  as  to  whole  subjects  ; 
and  to  particular  periods  of  an  individual's  life,  as  to 
the  whole  life. 

Educators  should  always  aim  at  securing  a  step  higher 
or  further;  but  whenever  there  is  real  difficulty  in 
securing  progress  in  a  higher  stage,  according  to  the 
proper  conditions  for  that  stage,  then  there  must  be  an 


224  EDUCATION 

appeal  to  the  materials  and  conditions  of  a  lower  stage, 
and  to  the  lowest  if  necessary. 

Comenius  constantly  and  specially  insists  npon  the 
principle  of  development  being  realised  in  the  details  of 
teaching.  In  his  work  entitled  "Didactica  Magna" 
he  lays  down  the  following  principles,  amongst  others : 
'*  Nature  does  nothing  without  a  foundation  or  root ; 
nature  sends  its  roots  deep;  nature  produces  every- 
thing from  a  root,  nothing  from  any  other  source; 
nature,  in  each  of  its  works,  is  in  perpetual  progress, 
never  halts,  and  never  attempts  new  things,  the  former 
things  being  cast  aside,  but  only  continues  what  has 
been  previously  begun,  increases  it,  and  perfects  it ; 
nature  binds  together  everything  by  continuous  bonds ; 
nature  begins  all  its  operations  from  within  outwards  *' 
(see  Professor  Laurie's  book  on  Comenius). 

The  Principle  of  Doing. — ^Much  the  same  ground  is 
covered  by  this  principle  as  by  that  of  self-activity,  but 
in  a  different  sense.  Whilst  the  latter  deals  with  culti- 
vation of  the  highest  and  truest  forms,  general  and 
particular,  of  an  individual  mind,  the  former  is  con- 
cerned with  the  general  and  inevitable  activity  of  the 
individual  which  is  absolutely  essential  to  full  and  free 
reception  of  any  and  every  educative  influence. 

If  it  be  true  that  the  beginnings  of  knowledge  are 
gained  through  the  senses  :  that  these  develop  through 
more  detailed  and  systematic  practical  acquaintance 
with  concretes :  and  that  all  the  higher  forms  of  know- 
ledge are  more  or  less  directly  connected  with,  and 
dependent  on,  the  lower,  then  it  is  clear  that  the 
personal  activity  of  the  individual  is  an  indispensable 


GENERAL   PRINCIPLES  225 

condition  of  acquisition  and  progress.  Exercise  is  one 
of  the  essential  conditions  of  development — ^nourish- 
ment being  the  other — and  regulated  activity  is  the 
best  kind  of  exercise. 

Froebel  puts  this  point  very  forcibly,  in  the  following 
words :  "  The  starting-point  of  all  that  appears,  of  all 
that  exists,  and  therefore  of  all  intellectual  conception, 
is  act,  action.  Prom  the  act,  from  action,  must  there- 
fore start  true  human  education,  the  developing  educa- 
tion of  the  man ;  in  action,  in  acting,  it  must  be  rooted 
and  must  spring  up  "  ("  The  Student's  Froebel,"  W.  H. 
Herford). 

Probably  the  most  common  and  fatal  mistake  in 
education  is  the  idea  that  learners  have,  for  the  most 
part,  to  sit  still  and  listen,  do  their  best  to  remember, 
and  afterwards  make  more  or  less  successful  efforts  to 
reproduce  the  verbal  signs  for  knowledge.  Nearly  all 
our  knowledge  of  the  physical  qualities  of  things  comes 
through  handling  and  seeing  them,  and  observing  the 
results  of  their  activities.  Very  little  knowledge  of 
things  is  obtained  through  tasting  and  smelling,  and 
only  a  knowledge  of  the  sounds  made  by  certain  things 
comes  through  the  ear. 

The  ear  is  not  only  one  of  the  least  fruitful  organs  of 
direct  knowledge,  but  it  is  the  last  to  be  useful  in  help- 
ing us  to  gain  knowledge  indirectly,  in  that  the  verbal 
signs  of  knowledge  are  of  no  use  to  us  until  we  have 
such  a  grasp  of  their  application  and  general  meaning, 
and  such  a  fund  of  acquired  knowledge,  that  we  can 
readily  and  rightly  reason  from  the  sign  to  the  thing 
signified. 

P 


226  EDUCA.TION 

Handling  and  seeing,  if  they  are  to  be  of  any  real 
and  considerable  use,  involve  a  large  amount  of  physical 
activity.  It  is  as  fatal  as  it  is  easy  and  usual  to  substi- 
tute the  teacher's  verbal  description  of  what  may  be 
seen  and  felt ;  but  the  educative  way  is  for  the  pupil  to 
handle  and  look,  and  describe  what  he  so  discovers — 
when  he  has  sufficient  command  of  words — until  he  can 
find  out  nothing  further  by  himself.  Then  the  educator 
must  suggest  and  inform ;  but  the  pupil  must  always 
verify  the  suggestions  and  information  by  his  own  expe- 
riences. 

Froebel's  kindergarten,  and  its  modem  developments, 
seek  to  realise  the  principles  of  doing  as  the  original 
and  true  source  of  early  knowledge.  The  kindergarten, 
and  its  extensions,  are  not  new  knowledge-subjects,  but 
new  statements  of  the  oldest  and  best  means  of  obtain- 
ing knowledge.  They  are  not  educational  materials, 
but  educational  means  and  methods.  Their  keynote 
is  :  knowing  through  doing. 

'*  Learn  by  doing "  was  Froebel's  great  axiom.  He 
insists  that  "  as  the  perceiving  and  grasping  of  a  truth, 
by  the  way  of  life  and  action,  is  far  more  unfolding, 
forming  and  strengthening,  than  the  mere  reception  of 
it  in  word  and  idea ;  so,  likewise  a  forming  by  and  in 
matter,  in  life — by  doing,  connected  with  thinking  and 
speaking,  is  far  more  helpful  for  a  man's  development 
and  improvement,  than  is  representation  by  ideas  and 
by  word,  without  act  or  deed." 

Plato  remarks :  "  The  young  of  all  creatures  cannot 
be  quiet  in  their  bodies  or  in  their  voices ;  they  are 
always  wanting  to  move  and  cry  out ;  some  leaping  and 
skipping,  and  overflowing  with  sportiveness  and  delight 


GENERAL   PRINCIPLES  227 

at  something,  and  others  uttering  all  sorts  of  cries." 
Aristotle  says:  "Children  should  have  something  to 
do,  and  the  rattle  of  Archytas,  which  people  give  to 
their  children  in  order  to  amuse  them  and  prevent 
them  from  breaking  any  thing  in  the  house,  was  a  capital 
invention,  for  a  young  thing  cannot  be  quiet "  (Jowett). 

Whilst  "  learn  by  doing  "  is  a  great  educational  truth, 
it  is  also  a  much  misunderstood  and  perverted  one. 
"  Throw  a  boy  into  the  water,  if  you  wish  him  to  know 
how  to  swim/'  and  "  give  a  man  the  charge  of  a  class, 
if  he  desires  to  know  how  to  teach,"  are  two  typical 
examples  of  the  misapplication  of  the  principle.  It 
is  quite  true  that  a  boy  cannot  actually  swim  without 
going  into  the  water,  and  that  a  person  cannot  really 
teach  without  taking  charge  of  a  pupil  or  a  class ;  but 
it  generally  makes  all  the  difference  between  success 
and  failure,  if  the  individual  has,  or  has  not,  had  the 
best  possible  preliminary  preparation  for  his  task. 

Every  one  can  find  out  some  way  or  other  of  doing 
what  is  necessary,  but  the  whole  point  and  purpose 
of  teaching  is  to  impart  the  best  ways  of  doing  things. 
There  is  ordinarily  a  good  deal  more  in  correct  style 
than  elegance  and  finish;  there  is  precision,  effective- 
ness, control,  and  resource.  Whilst,  therefore,  we  should 
insist  that  the  learner  must  be  constantly  learning 
through  doing,  we  must  also  insist  that  he  should  be 
prepared  for,  and  guided  in,  his  actions.  To  know 
exactly  what  has  to  be  done,  and  what  are  the  best  ways 
of  doing  it,  and  to  have  had  as  much  preliminary  drill 
as  possible  in  the  necessary  actions — either  with  or  with- 
out the  actual  material — constitute  a  large  part  of  the 
work,  and  the  best  guarantees  of  success. 


228  EDUCATION 

Hence,  the  principle  of  doing  involves  the  systematic 
and  intelligent  preparation  for,  supervision  of,  and  aid 
in,  doing. 

Doing  is  not  only  a  great  means  of  getting  know- 
ledge, bnt  it  is  also  one  of  the  best  tests  of  clear 
apprehension,  and  one  of  the  greatest  aids  to  the 
retention,  of  knowledge.  It  is  a  form  of  expression ; 
and  right  expression  is  a  proof  of  correct  comprehen- 
sion. It  helps  to  crystallise  thought,  and  to  make  it 
as  mnch  a  matter  of  habit  as  the  actions  themselves. 

In  the  higher  stages  of  development,  doing  will  take 
the  form  of  oral  work — ^in  occasionally  supplying  some 
of  the  judgments  in  a  reasoning — in  solving  problems, 
making  abstracts,  reproducing  arguments,  and  so  on. 
As  Dr.  Bain  points  out:  "In  the  act  of  learning 
generally  there  is  a  twofold  attitude — observing  what 
is  to  be  done,  and  doing  it.  In  verbal  exercises  we 
first  listen  and  then  repeat ;  in  handicraft,  we  look  at 
the  model,  and  then  reproduce  it.  The  proportioning 
of  the  two  attitudes  is  a  matter  of  economical  adjust- 
ment." We  must  regulate  the  principle  of  doing  by 
the  principle  of  stimulation. 

Physical  education,  as  a  means  of  training  the 
senses  is  one  of  the  most  fruitful  and  educative  forms 
of  doing.  The  muscles  of  the  body  can  be  trained,  by 
appropriate  exercises,  to  greater  precision  and  suscepti- 
bility in  estimating  effort,  and  of  adaptation  in  making 
eflEorts :  the  eye  in  the  delicate  judging  of  visual  efforts 
and  effects,  and  in  adapting  itself  for  looking,  as  a 
basis  for  judging  distance,  size,  shape,  numbers  and 
position:   the  touch  for  nice  discrimination  of  rough- 


GENERAL   PKINCIPLES  229 

ness,  smoothness,  temperature,  and  physical  connection 
or  separation:  the  ear  for  distinguishing  the  acoustic 
diflEerences  of  sounds :  the  organ  of  taste  for  deciding 
between  flavours :  and  the  organ  of  smell  for  respond- 
ing to  differences  of  odour — which  would  otherwise  be 
imperceptible  to  us. 

It  would  be  well  if  this  wider  meaning  of  physical 
education  were  insisted  on  as  the  true  one,  as  against 
the  more  narrow,  and  properly  hygienic,  limitation  of 
the  term  to  forms  of  muscular  drill.  Much  might  be 
done  through  careful  instruction  and  training  to  make 
the  ordinary  powers  of  the  senses  more  eflScient.  At 
present  we  are,  as  a  rule,  content  to  let  the  senses 
blunder  into  what  capacity  and  accuracy  they  may 
according  to  the  force  of  circumstances  and  the  chapter 
of  accidents. 

Systematic  training  of  the  ear,  as  in  the  ear  tests  in 
music,  and  in  piano-tuning :  of  the  eye,  as  of  soldiers 
in  practising  the  judging  of  distances:  of  the  hand,  as 
in  kindergarten  work :  of  the  sense  of  taste,  as  in  the 
case  of  the  wine-taster :  of  the  sense  of  smell,  as  in  the 
case  of  chemists:  and  of  the  muscular  sense,  as  in 
gymnastics,  games,  and  arts,  if  carried  out  with  more 
definite  purpose  and  extent,  and  continued  in  the 
higher  classes  of  our  schools,  will  do  much  to  further 
the  comprehensiveness  and  correctness  of  our  sense 
experiences. 

The  principles  of  the  education  of  the  deaf,  dumb, 
and  blind,  have  much  of  guidance  and  suggestion  for 
the  work  of  general  education.  If  the  separate  senses 
can  be  developed  to  the  extent  to  which  they  are  in 


230  EDUCATION 

these  special  cases,  it  is  clear  that  mucli  must  be  lost 
by  the  absence  of  any  definite  training  whatsoever. 
Not  that  it  is  either  necessary  or  expedient  to  train 
each  sense,  in  ordinary  individuals,  as  though  it  were 
deprived  of  the  help  of  one  or  more  of  the  other 
senses. 

Physical  education,  or  the  proper  development  and 
training  of  all  the  senses — which  really  involves  the 
health  and  vigour  of  the  whole  body — ^is,  therefore, 
another  essential  condition  for  the  fall  realisation  of 
the  principle  of  doing. 

Doing  is  not  only  necessary  as  a  means  of  receiving 
and  retaining  knowledge,  and  as  a  condition  of  life 
itself,  but,  as  we  have  previously  pointed  out,  it  is  also 
a  pleasure,  when  it  is  appropriate  to  the  needs  and 
nature  of  the  individual,  and  not  excessive  in  quantity. 
Thus  the  principles  of  pleasure  and  interest  are  real- 
ised when  the  right  conditions  for  action  are  present. 

Mr.  Herbert  Spencer  urges  that :  *'  Nature  has  made 
the  healthful  exercise  of  our  faculties  both  of  mind  and 

body  pleasurable With  all  faculties  lower  than 

these  (the  highest  mental  powers),  however,  the  im- 
mediate gratification  consequent  on  activity  is  the 
normal  stimulus,  and  under  good  management  the  only 
needful  stimulus." 

Recognising  this  truth,  and  also  the  fact  that  chil- 
dren are  little  working  machines,  which  must  and  will 
be  doing  something  or  other,  we  cannot  escape  the  con- 
clusion that  if  we  can  only  find  appropriate  exercise  for 
their  energies,  and  give  them  the  best  conditions, 
guidance,  and  help  for  their  work,  then  we  may  expect 


GENERAL  PRmCIPLES  231 

that  valuable  educational  effects  will  result  from  satis- 
fying the  desire  of  children  for  activity. 

Play  is  the  expression  of  the  child's  desire  for 
activity.  A  child  must  get  some  kind  of  knowledge 
through  its  play  experiences,  and  there  is  every  reason 
v^hy  its  play  shoi^ld  be  made  as  fruitful  in  the  mental 
pleasures  of  knowledge-getting  as  in  the  physical 
pleasures  of  sense-exercise.  Froebel  did  much  to 
solve  the  problem  of  making  play  educationally  pur- 
poseful. 

The  principle  of  doing  applies  with  just  as  much 
force,  and  in  quite  as  great  detail,  to  mental  as  to 
physical  work.  The  mind  of  the  learner  must  be  con- 
stantly making  its  own  comparisons,  judgments,  infer- 
ences, and  reasonings.  It  is  the  duty  of  the  educator 
to  stimulate,  prompt,  suggest,  challenge,  and  demand 
these.  Requiring  illustrations  from  personal  experi- 
ence :  accounts  of  analogous  instances  :  oral  or  written 
reproductions  of  subject  matter:  working  of  exercises 
and  problems :  re-discovery  of  truths :  re-invention  of 
theories  and  things :  and  the  like,  all  serve  to  secure 
mental  activity  in  the  most  direct,  definite,  interesting, 
and  helpful  ways. 

Of  course  it  is  assumed  that  the  educator  usually 
keeps  within  the  limits  of  the  powers  and  possessions 
of  the  learner,  though  constantly  striving  to  lead  him 
a  step  beyond  these.  Reception  is  the  first  duty  of 
the  learner,  and  forms  the  indispeo  sable  basis  of  pro- 
duction. Imports  precede  exports  in  intellectual  com- 
merce. 

Dr.  Karl  Langestates  the  principle  of  doing  very  finely, 


232  EDUCATION 

both  from  its  mental  and  physicd.1  sides,  in  the  following 
passage :  **  It  is  conceded  that  all  universal  historical 
truths,  all  geometrical  and  physical  laws,  can  only  be 
inalienably  appropriated  when  the  instruction  leads 
them  into  the  closest  connection  with  living  questions 
and  exigencies,  and  oflFers  examples  from  the  practical 

life  and  experience  of  the  child  for  solution For 

constant,  manifold  use  of  the  material  taught  not  only 
intensifies  the  clearness  of  it,  but  it  also  assimilates  it 
with  numerous  ranges  of  thought,  so  that  a  fluent 
reproduction  is  assured.  It  brings  forward  the  plain, 
comprehensible  characteristics  which  the  pupil  again 
and  again  recognises  in  concrete  things.  It  makes  so 
many  concrete  fields  subject  to  the  universal  that  the 
latter  is  supported  as  with  countless  pillars,  and  is 
retained  in  consciousness  by  a  rich  treasure  of  strong 

sense  perceptions In  this  manner  it  is  provided 

that  the  newly  learned  facts  shall  not  remain  as  dead 
material  in  the  midst  of  acquired  notions,  but  shall 
develop  an  assured  activity  and  impulsive  power. 
Knowledge  now  becomes  power,  and  power  becomes 
volition." 

Thus  the  principles  of  self-activity,  inter-relation  and 
inter-dependence,  and  repetition,  are  seen  to  be  involved. 
As  Schiller  says :  "  There  is  no  way  for  the  results  of 
thinking  to  reach  the  will  and  the  inner  life  of  the 
child  except  through  self-activity.  Nothing  but  that 
which  has  already  become  a  living  deed  within  us,  can 
become  such  in  the  outer  world." 

So  Dr.  Karl  Lange  points  out  that  he  who  has  ob- 
served  children    at    study    under   proper  educational 


GENERAL   PRINCIPLES  233 

conditions  **  knows  how  far  removed  their  energetic 
learning  is  from  a  simple,  passive  reception,  and  that 
not  the  teacher,  but  they  themselves  have  the  most  to 
perform.  He  is  convinced  that  knowledge  cannot  be 
transmitted,  that  the  pupil  must  work  it  out  independ- 
ently for  himself.  That  is  what  the  poet  means  when 
he  says  :  *  What  you  have  inherited  from  your  fathers, 
you  must  earn  again  in  order  to  possesa  it.'  "  At  least 
we  must  earn  it  by  learning  how  to  take  possession  of  it. 

The  learner  is  not  an  empty  vessel  which  has  to  be 
filled,  nor  ought  he  to  be  regarded  as  an  automaton 
-which  can  be  made  to  perform  certain  processes  in  a 
given  way.  He  is  an  organism  which  has  to  be  well 
and  wisely  supplied  with  appetising  and  nourishing 
food.  But  it  is  the  organism  alone  which  can,  and 
must,  do  its  own  eating,  digesting,  and  assimilating. 
We  cannot  give  a  child  knowledge,  but  only  good,  or 
bad,  conditions  for  getting  it. 

The  developing  being  must  be  stimulated  to  desire 
and  seek  after  knowledge.  He  must  strive  till  he  gets 
it.  There  must  be  definite  understanding  that  the  learner 
has  to  learn,  as  well  as  that  the  teacher  has  to  teach. 
No  one  can  do  the  pupil's  work  except  the  pupil,  and 
unless  it  is  done,  and  well  done,  there  can  be  little,  if 
any,  very  high  development. 

Dr.  Goetze,  in  his  handbook  on  manual  training, 
points  out  that  the  inter-dependence  of  doing  and 
knowing  is  shown  by  the  history  of  the  race,  wherein 
"  work  has  been  the  most  important  means  of  educating 
humanitv,"  and  by  the  educational  methods  used  in  the 
most  advanced  and  abstruse  parts  of  knowledge-subjects. 


234  EDUCATION 

He  says :  **  A  celebrated  mathematician  at  the  University 
of  Leipsic  had  a  modelKng  workshop  which  adjoined 
the  lecture-room.  He  made  his  pupils  model  in  plaster 
the  curves  and  surfaces  of  the  higher  order  which  they 
had  calculated,  so  that  they  might  thoroughly  under- 
stand them  whenever  drawing  on  the  flat  was  not  an 
eflBlcient  means  of  demonstration. 

"A  well-known  member  of  the  medical  faculty,  a 
pathological  anatomist,  once  said  to  me,  that  leaving 
purely  verbal  instruction  out  of  the  question,  even  the 
knowledge  acquired  by  observation  is  not  sufficient  for 
the  young  medical  student;  he  must,  through  the 
methodical  dissection  of  natural  objects,  train  his  hand." 
And  Dr.  Goetze  himself  remarks :  "What  should  we 
know  about  the  structure  of  wood,  its  density,  specific 
gravity,  sectile  properties,  combustibility,  &a,  had  we 
limited  our  examination  of  trees  to  ocular  contempla- 
tion ?  .  .  .  .  We  wish  to  educate  the  child  by  practical 
work  exactly  as  humanity  has  grown  and  developed 
under  the  educating  influence  of  work." 

A  very  suggestive  statement  of  the  same  truth  is  given 
by  Dr.  Isambard  Owen  in  the  address  already  referred  to. 
Ho  says :  "  Training  as  well  as  learning  is  a  necessary 

part  of  medical  education You  have  to  do  as  well 

as  to  know;  and  medical  doing,  like  all  other  doing, 
requires  a  special  cultivation  of  the  faculties  by  which 
it  must  needs  be  exercised.  We  have  for  the  most 
part  to  form  our  judgment  from  a  combination  of 
observations  ....  of  minute  changes  in  the  con- 
dition of  the  visible  surface,  observation  of  involutions 
of  the  surface  by  means  of  optical  apparatus,  obser- 


GENERAL  PRINCII?LES  235 

vations  of  the  results  of  physical,  chemical,  and  physio- 
logical tests,  microscopic  observations  of  disrupted 
fragments,  and  observations  of  a  series  of  fine  acoustic 
and  tactile  phenomena  and  reactions  elicited  and 
appreciated  by  means  of  the  trained  fingers  or  various 
artificial  appliances.'*  Again:  **To  neglect  laboratory 
studies  is  to  condemn  yourselves  to  walk  in  fetters  to 
the  end  of  your  days." 

Manual  training,  as  a  branch  of  physical  education, 
is  an  essential  condition  for  full  and  complete  develop- 
ment. As  Buffon  has  said :  ^'  The  hand,  together  with 
reason,  is  that  which  makes  man  a  man." 

One  of  the  most  valuable  forms  which  the  principle 
of  doing  can  take  is  that  of  free  but  purposeful  activity. 
That  is,  the  element  of  play  should  be  provided  for 
throughout  the  period  of  ordinary  school  education. 
The  educator  should  see  that  all  kinds  of  games  and 
sports  are  properly  and  systematically  made  use  of; 
but  beyond  initiating,  advising,  suggesting,  co-operating, 
and  preventing  abuses,  he  should  have  as  little  as 
possible  to  do  with  the  practical  control  and  manage- 
ment. These  should  be  left,  as  far  as  possible,  entirely 
in  the  hands  of  the  pupils. 

The  relief,  refreshment,  and  invigoration  thus  obtained 
are  more  than  can  be  got  from  any  other  source,  and  of 
the  greatest  value  in  maintaining  the  maximum  of 
energy  and  efficiency.  Recreation,  intervals,  half- 
holidays,  and  vacations,  within  reasonable  limits,  are  not 
matters  of  indulgence  and  luxury,  but  necessities  for 
proper  development.  They  come  under  the  principles 
of  stimulation,  nourishment,  and  pleasure. 


236  EDUCATION 

And  tHis  element  of  free  and  purposeful  activity  can, 
with  very  excellent  results,  be  introduced  into  the 
ordinary  work  of  school  education,  under  the  principle 
of  self-activity.  For  example,  spelling-bees,  guessing 
competitions,  class  contests  after  the  Jesuit  plan,  and 
other  exercises  in  which  the  pupils  themselves  conduct 
the  proceedings,  under  the  teacher's  guidance,  give  very 
great  pleasure,  and  produce  permanent  and  valuable 
results  when  wisely  managed. 

Comenius  advises  that:  "Teaching  should  be  tem- 
pered with  an  agreeable  variety,  and  the  playful 
element  admitted.  The  rivalry  and  emulation  of  free 
games  should  be  encouraged  in  lessons.  And  Aristotle 
says :  "The  first  principle  of  all  action  is  leisare.  Both 
are  required. .  •  .  Amid  serious  occupations  amusement 
is  needed  more  than  at  other  times  (for  he  who  is  hard 
at  work  has  need  of  relaxation,  and  amusement  gives 
relaxation,  whereas  occupation  is  always  accompanied 
with  exertion  and  effort).  At  suitable  times  we  shbnld 
introduce  amusements.  .  .  .  Leisure  of  itself  gives 
pleasure  and  happiness  and  enjoyment  of  life,  which 
are  experienced  not  by  the  busy  man,  but  by  those  who 
have  leisure." 

The  Principle  of  Sympathetic  Control. — ^The  first  con- 
dition of  the  power  to  influence  any  person  is  to  have 
such  a  general  control  as  is  sufficient  to  command  his 
co-operation  with,  or  non-resistance  to,  the  influences. 
It  is  possible  for  an  individual  to  resist  and  resent  the 
efforts  made  to  influence  him.  Such  resistance  must 
always  depend  upon  the  power  of  willing,  whatever 
may  be  the  motive  which  prompts  it.     It  is  necessary, 


0£N£E.AL   PRINCIPLES  237 

therefore,  that  we  should  know  how  best  to  secure  the 
co-operation  of  the  individuars  will. 

Now,  since  willing  is  stimulated  and  largely  con- 
trolled by  the  feelings  and  knowledge,  it  is  through 
these  that  we  must  seek  to  influence  it.  And,  as 
feelings  and  knowledge  are  powerful  to  aiBRect  the  will 
according  as  they  have  interest  for  the  mental  life,  it  is 
necessary  to  use  the  most  interesting  forms  of  them. 

Also,  inasmuch  as  willing  always  expresses  itself  in 
some  form  of  mental  or  physical  activity,  or  both,  we 
shall,  as  a  rule,  know  when  we  have  been  successful  in 
our  efforts  by  the  fact  that  work  is  done  by  the  indi- 
vidual in  accordance  with  our  aims. 

Those  feelings  and  forms  of  knowledge  will,  generally, 
most  interest  i^n  individual,  which  are  closest  in  accord 
with  the  general  nature  of  the  needs  of  the  particular 
stage  of  development  which  has  been  reached,  and  also 
with  the  particular  inclinations  and  disposition  of  the 
person  in  question.  This  applies,  in  the  widest  possible 
sense,  to  the  intellectual,  moral,  and  physical  powers. 
It  is,  therefore,  through  securing  such  conditions  as 
best  satisfy  the  needs  of  the  life  and  character  of  indi- 
viduals that  we  are  likely  to  obtain  the  most  thorough 
and  complete  cooperative  control  over  them. 

Our  efforts  must  be  as  much  against  bringing  about 
anything  like  a  condition  of  dependent  subjection,  as 
towards  the  winning  of  a  free  and  full  consent  to  being 
guided  and  rationally  governed.  The  former  is  fatal 
to  high  and  vigorous  development,  whilst  the  latter  is 
necessary  to  the  success  of  helpful  effort.  It  is  as  im- 
portant that  there  should  be  no  undue  constraint,  or 


238  EDUCATION 

restraint,  where  sonnd  progress  is  being  made,  as  that 
authority,  wisely  used,  should  if  possible,  forcibly 
check  unsound  and  mischievous  growths.  Force  may 
be  no  remedy,  but  it  is  often  an  unfortunate  necessity 
for  securing  an  opportunity  for  remedial  efforts  to  have 
a  chance  of  taking  effect. 

In  ordinary  cases,  ordinary  means  should  be  both 
sufficient  and  efficient.  Let  us,  therefore,  accept  the 
principle  of  sympathetic  control  as  signifying  the 
securing  a  legitimate  influence  over  the  will  of  an 
individual  by  supplying  the  most  appropriate  material 
and  conditions,  at  the  proper  time,  and  in  the  proper 
proportion  and  amount,  and  so  helping  them  to  bring 
about  their  best  effects  in  the  best  possible  manner. 

The  highest  and  truest  end  of  e:s^emal  contR>l  being  to 
produce  the  best  form  of  self-control,  there  must  always 
be  a  gradually  decreasing  amount  of  the  former. 
Even  the  securing  of  good  conditions,  and  the  providing 
of  the  best  material,  must,  little  by  little,  be  under- 
taken by  the  individual  himself.  Indeed,  this  duty  is 
one  of  the  most  satisfactory  and  pleasant  means  of 
securing  the  desired  end.  To  put  responsibility  upon 
a  person,  by  authority,  is  almost  certain  to  develop 
self-control  and  self-dependence  in  him. 

Following  the  order  of  development  already  set  forth, 
we  may  say  that  control  during  the  first  period  should  be 
of  the  nature  of  an  educative  despotism.  The  utter  help- 
lessness of  the  child,  as  to  directing  its  own  actions  so  as 
to  further  its  well-being,  makes  it  necessary  that  others 
should  take  the  entire  responsibility  of  ordering  its  life. 

During  this  period  is  the  only  time  when  the  indi- 


GENERAL   PRINCIPLES  239 

vidual  should,  as  a  general  rule,  be  entirely  subject  to 
the  influence  and  control  of  the  educator.  Subject  the 
child  must  be,  either  to  the  unorganised  influences  of 
its  surroundings,  or  to  these  influences  definitely  or- 
ganised to  aid  its  development.  The  absence  of  physical 
and  mental  power  places  it  at  the  mercy  of  any  and 
every  passing  influence,  whether  this  be  for  its  greatest 
good  or  harm,  unless  some  educational  sponsor  guards 
and  guides  it. 

Herbart  declares  that :   **  The  child  enters  the  world 

without  a  will  of  its  own At  first,  instead  of  a 

true  will,  which  renders  the  child  capable  of  determina- 
tion, there  is  only  a  wild  impetuosity,  impelling  it 
hither  and  thither,  a  principle  of  disorder,  disturbing 
the  plans  of  the  adults,  and  placing  the  future  per- 
sonality of  the  child  itself  in  manifold  dangers.     This 

impetuosity   must  be  subdued Subjection   is 

brought  about  by  force,  and  the  force  must  be  sufficiently 
strong,  and  often  enough  repeated,  to  compass  this 
subjection,  before  any  trace  of  a  true  will  is  manifested 
in  the  child.  The  principles  of  practical  philosophy 
require  this." 

Hence  the  need  and  the  justification  of  this  despotic 
form  of  educational  government.  But  even  so  this  is 
only  allowable  as  a  means  of  securing  the  brief  con- 
ditions for  producing,  and  until  there  has  been  pro- 
duced, such  a  development  in  the  individual  as  enables 
him  to  do  without  it.  It  must,  therefore,  be  a  con- 
stantly decreasing  power.  It  is  a  means,  and  not  an 
end.  As  Professor  Eein  says:  *' Government,  there- 
fore, aims  to  attain  no  direct  end  whatever  in  the  mind 


240  EDUCATION 

of  the  child,  but  will  only  produce  order ;  it  aims  to  be 
felt  as  a  power  that  is  concerned  with  nothing  further 
than  the  enforcement  of  its  measures." 

As  we  have  already  seen,  the  highest  form  of  volutt- 
tary  willing  is  a  development  from  the  involuntary  form, 
in  which  it  is,  for  all  practical  purposes,  wholly  deter- 
mined by  external  influences.  It  is  the  educator's 
duty  to  be  the  most  powerful,  purposeful,  and  helpful, 
of  the  influences  which  are  affecting  the  development 
of  the  mind  at  this  early  period. 

If  done  in  a  thoroughly  sympathetic  manner — ^with  a 
full  knowledge  of  the  needs  of  the  child,  and  a  wise  and 
generous  satisfying  of  them — this  kind  of  control  gives 
the  greatest  possible  pleasure  and  profit  to  the  little 
one,  and  is  a  bond  of  union  between  educator  and 
pupil,  which  makes  for  the  happiness  of  both.  The 
egoistic  feelings  of  the  child  will  attach  him  very 
closely  to  one  who  ministers  so  fully  and  constantly  to 
his  comfort  and  well-being. 

Inasmuch  as  the  will  is  very  much  influenced  by  the 
feelintrs,  and  the  feelings  are  very  stong  and  active  in 
this  stage,  they  ofier  a. powerful  means  of  controlling 
the  will.  It  will,  therefore,  be  allowable  to  gratify  the 
child's  love  of  pleasure,  by  giving,  as  rewards  for  effort 
and  success,  such  things  as  sweets,  and  toys.  But  great 
care  must  be  taken  that  this  does  not  grow  into 
corruption  and.  bribery.  It  must  not  be  that  these 
things  are  given  so  as  to  get  the  child  to  do  its  work, 
but  merely  as  generous  and  occasional  recognitions  of 
work  well  done.  Unless  this  be  so  the  influence  will 
be  vicious,  and  the  resulting  development  undesirable. 


GENERAl.  PRINCIPLES  241 

To  aim  at  the  control  of  a  child  merely  for  the  sake  of 
control  is  as  despicable  as  it  is  dangerous.  It  is  a 
mean  and  petty  triumph  to  subdue  a  tender  and  help- 
less child  to  one's  will,  by  physical,  or  other,  intimida^- 
tion;  but  it  is  a  noble  success  to  exert  a  reasonable 
control  and  guidance  over  the  young,  solely  with  a  view 
to  furthering  their  happiness  and  progress. 

The  effects  of  control,  for  control's  sake,  are  almost 
certain  to  be  repression,  constraint,  helplessness,  and  a 
want  of  originality,  initiation,  confidence,  and  self- 
respect.  The  results  of  sympathetic  control  are  likely 
to  be  the  very  opposites  of  these« 

In  the  second  great  period  of  development  control 
should  be  more  of  the  nature  of  educative  co-operation. 
The  child  is  beginning  to  realise,  in  a  practical  sense, 
its  own  powers  and  importance;  its  physical  self 
demands  recognition ;  and  it,  therefore,  no  longer  re- 
quires, enjoys,  or  profits  by,  a  complete  surrender  of 
its  individuality  to  that  of  another.  There  is  still  need 
of  the  most  thorough  and  complete  guidance  and  con- 
trol ;  but  the  spirit  and  form  of  these  must  change. 

The  child  has  now  got  beyond  the  time  for  spoon- 
meat^  and  can  feed  itself,  though  it  is  still  unable  to 
provide  and  prepare  its  own  food.  These  altered  con- 
ditions in  the  powers  of  the  child  must  be  met  with 
altered  conditions  in  the  attitude  of  the  educator.  It 
is  no  longer  a  case  for  the  imperative,  but  for  the 
indicative,  mood  in  authority,  as  the  general  rule. 
Not  that  the  imperative  suddenly  and  wholly  disappears, 
but  that  it  is  gradually  supplanted  by  the  indicative. 
The  educator  should  be  more  of  the  ministering  angel 

Q 


242  EDUCATION 

than  the  master  at  this  stage,  though  he  must  still  be 
both. 

Sympathetic  control  now  means  that  "the  teacher 
enters  into  the  feelings  of  the  pupil,  and,  without  per- 
mitting it  to  be  noticed,  joins  in  them  with  tact,  or  he 
takes  care  that  the  feelings  of  the  pupU  can  approach 
his  own  in  some  particular  way ;  this  is  more  difficult, 
but  must  nevertheless  be  combined  with  the  other, 
because  only  when  it  is  possible  for  the  pupil  to  unite 
his  activity  in  some  way  or  other  with  the  teacher's 
can  he  contribute  force  of  his  own  to  the  relationship 
between  them  "  (Herbart). 

Leading,  rather  than  commanding,  must  now  be  the 
attitude  of  the  educator.  The  native  energy  and  in- 
quisitiveness  of  the  child  renders  unnecessary  anything 
more  than  the  control  of  wise  guiding,  in  most  things. 
Whilst  the  nature  of  the  individual  will  compel  a  general 
agreement  between  its  own  development  and  that  of 
otherfe,  it  will  not  the  less  require  freedom  for,  and 
assistance  in,  the  development  of  personal  peculiarities, 
more  or  less  important  and  predominant.  Anything 
like  a  too  mechanical  or  exclusive  control  is,  therefore, 
likely  to  prove  mischievous  and  dangerous. 

At  this  stage  of  development  the  stronger  sentiments 
of  the  child  must  be  enlisted  on  the  side  of  the  edu- 
cator. The  child  is  beginning  to  know  and  appreciate 
the  importance  of  the  goodwill  and  help  of  others  in 
increasing  the  amount  and  fulness  of  its  pleasures  and 
well-boing.  Its  feelings  of  gratitude  and  affection  are 
lively  and  strong,  and  it  is  always  quick  to  exercise 
these  towards  those  who  have  any  real  claim  upon  them. 


GENEBAL   PRINCIPLES  243 

Whatever  actions  of  the  child  are  due  to  such  feelings 
will  have  a  very  high  value  as  developing  influences, 
for  they  will  be  of  the  nature  of  self-activity.  There  is 
an  evident  expression  of  the  self  in  all  actions  due  to 
feelings  of  gratitude  and  aifection.  The  suggestion 
may,  and  in  early  life  often  must,  come  from  without, 
but  the  motive  which  leads  to,  and  sustains,  action  will 
be  entirely  from  within.  Hence,  to  the  learner,  it  will 
appear  that  he  is  working  out  his  desires  to  please  his 
teacher,  not  that  he  is  doing  something  simply  because 
the  teacher  tells  him  to  do  it.  The  personal  character 
of  the  educator  is,  therefore,  of  the  greatest  moment.  A 
fondness  for,  keen  sympathy  with,  and  full  knowledge 
of,  children  are  qualifications  of  the  first  order  in  a 
teacher;  for  they  are  direct  and  powerful  agencies  of 
control. 

Again,  the  feelings  of  respect,  admiration,  and  shame, 
may  all  be  called  forth  in  the  interests  of  the  educating 
process  by  the  fairness  and  justice,  the  learning  and 
capacity,  and  the  sorrow  and  disgust  at  wrongdoing,  of 
the  educator.  That  these  are  by  no  means  fanciful  con- 
clusions forced  out  of  psychological  truths,  is  well  seen 
in  the  almost  worship  and  devotion  which  boys  give  to 
a  master  who  has  a  great  reputation  for  sports  or 
athletics,  or  even  for  deep  scholarship.  Older  boys  will 
render  willing  service  to  such,  and  will  insist  that  their 
juniors  do  the  like. 

Control  is  never  so  complete  or  effective  as  when  it 
is  secured  through  stimulating  and  ministering  to  the 
proper  feelings  and  desires  of  persons.  The  history  of 
the  influence  of  the  leaders  of  great  movements  in  the 


244  EDUCATION 

past  gives  convincing  and  conclusive  evidence  of  this. 
The  educator  should,  therefore,  seek  to  exert  every 
legitimate  influence  of  this  kind.  It  is  of  little  use  to 
urge  upon  young  children  that  they  should  be  good— 
which  they  can  only  understand  in  a  very  concrete 
sense — because  it  is  so  good  to  be  good — which  they 
can  hardly  understand  at  all.  Even  the  greatest  of 
moral  teachers  said:  **If  ye  love  me,  keep  my  com- 
mandments." 

Besides  making  use  of  the  growing  sentiments  of  the 
child  as  means  of  control,  the  educator  may  still  con- 
tinue to  appeal  to  its  lively  sense  of  pleasura  Rewards, 
under  the  restrictions  previously  suggested,  are  still 
lawful  means  of  stimulating  the  activity  of  the  learner. 
These  should,  however,  be  on  a  higher  plane  than 
formerly.  Special  private  and  public  expressions  of 
approval  ought  to  be  very  acceptable,  and  encouraging, 
to  those  whose  sense  of  self  is  becoming  assertive. 

Material  rewards  are  also  admissible ;  but  they  must 
satisfy  and  assist  the  higher  development,  by  giving 
opportunities  for  its  exercise.  Simple  working  models 
of  machines,  sets  of  tools,  objects  of  interest— such  as 
a  small  case  of  native  butterflies — holiday  excursions 
for  geographical  and  historical  purposes,  social  enter- 
tainments mainly  managed  by  the  scholars,  and  the 
like,  may  be  made  as  profitable  as  pleasurable. 

The  practical  universality  of  this  principle  amongst 
human  beings  is  shown  by  such  proverbial  sayings  as : 
"Reward  sweetens  labour,"  and  ** Nothing  succeeds 
like  success."  The  stimulating  effect  of  the  concrete 
results  of  successful  effort-,  and  the  demoralising  results 


GENERAL   PRINCIPLES  245 

of  failures,  are  obvious  to  all.  With  the  child  these 
elements,  like  many  others,  need  to  be  more  or  less 
artificially  emphasised. 

Emulation  is  apt  to  prove  a  dangerous  instrument  at 
this  point,  owing  to  its  liability  to  become  purely  per- 
sonal, since  the  child  is  unable  to  sufiSciently  appreciate 
the  remote  and  abstract  results  of  competition.  Hence 
it  has  a  tendency  to  bring  about  many  of  the  evils 
which  a  proper  control  seeks  to  avoid,  e.g.,  jealousy,  ill- 
feeling,  and  personal  conflict 

Too  much  care  cannot  be  taken  in  preventing  such 
exceptional  influences  from  becoming  forms  of  bribery. 
They  ought  always  to  involve  more  or  less  of  the  un- 
expected and  undeserved,  in  the  sense  that  they  are 
generous  additions  to  the  ordinary  and  sa£Scient  out- 
comes of  activity. 

Demonstration  is  one  of  the  most  powerful  means  of 
control  in  the  latter  part  of  this  period.  There  is  a 
native  desire  for  a  knowledge  of  the  practical  reasons 
for  things,  which  applies  as  much  to  educational 
matters  as  to  others.  If  the  intelligent  pupil  is  led  to 
see  that  all  educational  processes  are  designed  for  his 
personal  advantage,  he  will  be  likely  to  render  a  more 
complete,  loyal,  and  constant,  co-operation  in  the  work. 

Milton  in  his  "  Tractate  on  Education  "  most  wisely 
urges  that  "  to  season  them,  and  win  them  early  to  the 
love  of  vertue  and  true  labour,  ere  any  flattering 
seducement,  or  vain  principle  seise  them  wandering, 
some  easie  and  delightful  book  of  education  would  be 
read  to  them."  Whilst  theoretical  ideas  about  educa- 
tion would  be  better  reserved  till  later,  the  giving  of 


246  EDUCATION 

concrete  reasons  and  rules  may  very  profitably  be  begon 
at  this  stage. 

"  Assuming  that  the  pupil  has  already  a  lively  sense 
of  the  gain  which  intellectual  guidance  brings  him,  and 
of  the  loss  which  he  will  suffer  from  every  deprivation, 
or,  indeed,  diminution  of  it,  he  may  then  be  shown  that 
as  a  condition  of  the  continuance  of  this  guidance,  a 
perfectly  stable  relationship  is  requisite,  which  can  be 
calculated  upon  in  all  instances ;  and  that  the  teacher 
must  be  able  to  confidently  assume  there  will  be  instant 
obedience  as  soon  as  he  has  ground  for  requiring  it. 
There  is  now  no  question  at  all  of  mere  blind  obedience; 
that  is  not  consistent  with  any  friendly  relationship. 
But  everywhere  there  occur  cases  in  which  only  one 
can  decide,  and  the  others  must  follow  without  opposi- 
tion. This  nevertheless  must  be  followed  at  the  first 
opportunity  by  an  explanation  why  that  decision  was 
arrived  at  and  no  other,  so  that  the  pupil's  future 
judgment  may  meet  the  command  halfway.  Conviction 
of  the  necessity  of  subordination  must  therefore  concede 
what  the  teacher  for  himself  would  not  dare  to  ask " 
(Herbart). 

Now  is  the  time  when  the  processes  of  education 
themselves  become  the  best  means  of  control.  If  any- 
thing be  true,  it  must  be  the  fact  that  when  a  person  is 
being  vigorously  developed  according  to  the  best  model 
and  under  the  most  favourable  conditions,  his  energy  is 
therein  fully  occupied,  his  efforts  directed  to  that  end, 
his  general  needs  and  desires  best  satisfied,  and  his  whole 
being  completely  harmonised  with  its  surroundings. 
This  is  control  of  the  most  thorough  and  ideal  kind. 


GENERAL  PRINCIPLES  247 

Mr.  H.  G.  Wells  has  very  happily  expressed  the  ele- 
ment of  co-operation.  He  says :  *^  The  teacher  and  the 
child  should  agree,  as  Tennyson  says  of  man  and  woman, 
*like  perfect  music  unto  noble  words/  and  our  *  sympathy ' 
means,  not  coincidence,  but  the  capacity  for  co-operation." 

Putting  the  matter  from  the  boy's  standpoint, 
Herbart  argues  that :  "  Everything  must  appear  to  the 
boy  as  his  work ;  he  must  wish  to  feel  he  has  himself 
to  thank  for  his  improvement.  The  years  from  ten  to 
fourteen,  when  the  boy  feels  intensely  he  must  be 
educated,  are  very  important.  If  these  are  neglected, 
formation  by  education  is  lost:  earlier,  from  the  sixth 
year  onward,  it  is  difficult  to  awake  and  maintain  this 
spirit  in  the  child." 

For  the  third  great  stage  of  development  a  change  of 
attitude  is  again  necessary.  Co-operation,  in  the  some- 
what limited  sense  of  guiding  and  controlling  co- 
operation, must  gradually  give  place  to  what  we  may 
call  educative  suggestion.  Even  demonstration  must 
also  give  place  to  suggestion,  as  frequently  as  may  be ; 
for  the  power  of  applying  knowledge  ought  to  be 
sufficiently  ready  and  correct  to  make  the  need  of 
demonstration  much  less  frequent  than  formerly;  and 
the  growth  of  the  power  of  willing,  and  the  realisation 
of  the  self,  are  likely  to  make  the  individual  intolerant 
of  experiencing  much  that  suggests  his  subjection  to 
guidance  and  control. 

At  this  point  the  chief  duty  of  the  educator  is  to 
supply  good  material,  or  to  indicate  where  it  can  be 
best  obtained.  Lectures,  text-books,  illustrations  and 
the  like,  will  be  convenient  sources  of  supply.     It  ia 


248  EDUCATION 

still  most  important  that  the  material  should  be  supplied 
in  its  most  educative  form,  i.e.,  under  favourable  condi- 
tions, and  in  a  scientifically  dependent  and  connected 
manner.  Educational  principles  ought  to  be  carefully 
observed  as  to  the  nature  and  arrangement  of  the 
information  contained  in  text-books,  lectures,  and  the 
Uke. 

Now  has  come  the  time  when  the  educator  should 
find  the  greatest  success  of  his  work,  in  the  pupil's 
ability  to  look  after  his  own  education.  The  fruition  of 
the  educator's  efforts  is  the  self-educator.  The  pre- 
dominant development  of  willing,  and  the  strength  of  a 
well-informed  and  vigorous  judgment,  will  need  such  a 
self-dependence  for  their  highest  and  best  work,  and 
they  will  demand  it.  It  will  almost  certainly  be 
secured  in  some  way  or  another,  and  in  some  one  of 
several  forms,  legitimate  or  otherwise. 

There  are  few  things  more  mischievous,  and  often 
disastrous,  than  for  the  educator,  whether  of  the  domestic, 
religious,  or  scholastic  order,  to  endeavour  to  make  his 
own  will  take  the  place,  and  do  the  duty,  of  that  of  the 
learner.  This  kind  of  action  is  generally  the  pride  and 
pleasure  of  the  masterful  individual  who  more  or  less 
crushes  other  wills  to  assert  and  exalt  his  own.  Not 
that  personal  influence  should  be  denied  its  proper 
effects,  but  that  it  should  not  be  enforced — except  at 
special  periods,  for  right  ends,  and  in  a  reasonable 
manner — by  any  authority  or  power  not  derived  from  its 
own  nature ;  and  even  this  may  be  excessive  and  pre- 
judicial. Forms  of  slavery,  even  if  benevolent,  are  likely 
to  produce  helpless  dependents,  parasites,  and  rebels. 


GENEBAL  PRINCIPLES  249 

Helpful  guidance  and  co-operation  are  still  indis- 
pensable, but  they  should,  in  most  instances,  come  in 
the  form  of  suggestive  information  and  advice.  Even 
the  old  forms  of  co-operation  and  command  will  be  not 
infrequently  necessary,  but  they  must  be  used  with  the 
pupil's  free  consent,  or  at  his  request  There  must  be 
a  putting  away  of  childish  things,  and  a  putting  on  of 
the  responsibilities  and  self-dependence  of  manhood,  on 
the  part  of  the  learner. 

To  subject  the  will,  during  this  period  of  special 
development,  to  an  overwhelming  restraint,  and  a  con- 
fined sphere  of  action,  is  just  the  way  to  deprive  it  of 
the  power  and  readiness  which  it  will  most  want  when 
such  restraint  is  no  longer  possible.  Without  doubt 
many  characters  have  been  wrecked  through  an  over- 
solicitude  to  shield  and  safeguard  them.  Crutches  assist, 
and  may  help  to  cure,  the  lame,  but  they  only  cumber, 
and  may  cripple,  the  healthy. 

As  we  have  before  pointed  out,  the  want  of  sufficient 
exercise  leads  to  a  loss  of  power  and  skill,  and  may 
finally  result  in  a  loss  of  function.  And  this  is  as  true 
of  a  part  as  of  the  whole.  To  stop  short  of  the  condi- 
tions necessary  for  the  highest  development  of  the 
power  of  willing  is  to  run  the  risk  of  losing  it,  and, 
certainly,  to  very  much  prejudice  it. 

Eeasonable  self-dependence  is  one  of  the  finest 
attributes  of  man,  and  forms  one  of  the  foundation- 
stones  of  his  place  in  nature.  It  involves  self-command 
and  self-control,  and  is  based  upon  those  habits  which 
have  most  general  influence,  and  which  are  themselves 
the  outcome  of  carefully  selected  and  constantly  re- 


250  EDUCATION 

peated  efforts.  There  is  such  a  control  of  the  thoughts, 
feelings,  and  actions  that  they  can,  as  a  rule,  be  so 
organised,  and  related  to  systems  of  ideas  and  ideals, 
as  to  give  the  very  best  chance  for  the  realisation  of 
our  desires. 

Self-activity,  in  the  educational  sense,  has  its  origin 
in  this  higher  stage  of  willing.  The  activity  based 
upon  self-dependent  judgment  and  willing  is  the  ex- 
pression of  character  and  individuality.  The  power  and 
quality  of  the  self-activity  of  the  learner  at  this  period, 
is  generally  according  to  the  wisdom  and  effectiveness 
of  the  previous  education. 

Herbart  declares  that  "in  the  pupil's  seventeenth 
year  education  proper  is  impossible,  or  at  most  only 
possible  in  those  who  see  what  they  have  missed,  and 
in  whom  the  wish  to  submit  themselves  to  education  is 
keen.  This  feeling,  however,  will  not  last  long,  at 
least  not  beyond  the  time  that  they  feel  they  can  carry 
on  their  education  for  themselves." 

Now  that  the  mind  has  the  power  of  appreciating 
the  meaning  and  value  of  scientific  principles,  the  will 
is  very  greatly  influenced  by  the  mental  conviction  that 
certain  effects  can  only  be  obtained  through  special 
conditions,  if  we  wish  to  have  them  in  their  best  forms, 
and  to  get  them  in  the  easiest  way.  Consequently 
there  should  now  be  a  direct  and  explicit  appeal  to  the 
reason,  in  the  form  of  critical  judgment,  as  the  motive 
for  continuing  education,  chiefly  if  not  solely,  through 
self-effort — so  soon  as  this  appears  to  be  possible.  For 
this  there  must  be  sufficient  self-dependence,  knowledge, 
skill,  and  power. 


GENERAL   PRINCIPLES  251 

An  elementary  text-book  on  the  theory  of  education 
may  be  studied  by  the  learner  at  this  stage ;  and  he 
ought  to  derive  as  much  advantage  therefrom  as  an 
artisan  would  from  an  intelligent  study  of  a  book  on 
the  theory  of  his  trade.  In  any  case  very  great  advan- 
tage would  be  derived  from  a  careful  study  of  the  prin- 
ciples of  logic — ^the  science  of  valid  thought.  There 
are  the  same  reasons  for  the  self-educator  to  have  this 
sort  of  knowledge  as  for  the  educator  of  others  to  possess 
it.  It  will  also  do  something  to  satisfy  that  desire  to 
know  and  understand  the  self  which  begins  to  take 
form  in  later  youth. 

The  principal  influences  by  which  the  will  can  be 
affected  at  this  period  are  those  sentiments  which  are 
most  strongly  developed  about  this  time.  The  higher 
forms  of  respect,  reverence,  affection,  love,  and  pride, 
are  now  present  in  greater  or  less  degree  in  the  learner, 
and  may  be  stimulated  and  used  as  motives  for  self- 
education.  Ambition,  the  desire  for  wealth,  the  search 
for  happiness,  the  endeavour  to  escape  the  ills  of  life, 
and  other  like  motives,  will  all  appeal  most  strongly  in 
favour  of  self-education,  if  the  proper  thoughts  and 
feelings  can  be  aroused. 

Emulation  is  now  allowable,  if  the  value  of  compe- 
tition as  a  stimulus  is  understood,  and  the  fruits  of  the 
struggle  are  sought  in  personal  progress  and  increase 
of  knowledge,  and  not  in  the  mere  triumph  over  another. 
Self-approval,  based  on  right  moral  principles,  should 
be  a  powerful  stimulus.  "To  thine  own  self  be  true'' 
is  now  one  of  the  highest  and  best  motives,  so  long  as 
the  self  has  been  well  developed,  and  has  high  aims. 


252  EDUCATION 

Studious  youths  will  generally  be  found  to  have 
some  strong  motive  underlying  and  sustaining  their 
earnestness  and  perseverance;  such  as  the  hope  of 
securing  scholastic  success,  the  desire  to  please  their 
parents,  or  the  keen  personal  pleasure  derived  from  the 
study  of  a  particular  subject.  In  these  cases  it  is 
clearly  the  desire  to  realise  one's  own  idea,  or  ideal, 
i.e.,  some  form  of  the  self,  which  is  the  all-important 
element.  This  attitude  toward  effort  is  appropriate  to 
this  stage  of  mental  development,  desirable  in  itself,  and 
likely  to  produce  the  greatest  and  best  results. 

But  even  in  this  growth  of  self-dependence  there  are 
the  usual  stages  of  gradual  increase  of  self-reliance  and 
self-confidence.  Not  all  at  once  does  the  individual 
order  all  his  actions  entirely  according  to  his  own  judg- 
ments and  inclinations.  There  will  be  many  occasions 
when  feelings  of  helplessness  and  ignorance  will  lead 
to  requests  for  guidance  and  assistance ;  when  failure 
will  cause  a  willingness  to  submit  to  even  despotic 
control ;  or  when  partial  success  will  bring  an  eagerness 
to  receive  co-operative  aid. 

An  extremely  interesting  illustration  of  the  kind  of 
progress  involved  is  found  in  a  method  used  for  train- 
ing blind  persons  in  finding  their  own  way  about  their 
homes  and  surroundings.  There  is  first  the  leading 
by  linking  of  arms ;  then  the  blind  person  holds  the 
end  of  a  stick ;  next  a  piece  of  string  is  used ;  after 
this  the  only  help  obtained  is  by  listening  to  the  foot- 
steps of  another;  and,  finally,  the  learner  is  left  to 
himself,  and  told  to  fold  his  left  arm  across  his  breast, 
as  some  protection  in   case  of  a  collision,  and  use  the 


GENERAL  PRINCIPLES  253 

right  hand    to  explore  the   space    jast  in    front   of 
him. 

In  this  system  the  gradual  decrease  of  external  help 
is  very  ingeniously  contrived,  and  the  result  is  a  growth 
of  confidence  and  skill  in  self-dependence.  Some  such 
features  will  be  found  in  the  ordinary  development  of 
youthful  independence ;  and,  therefore,  the  educator 
may  become  the  guide,  philosopher,  and  friend  of  the 
self-educator. 

Throughout  every  stage  of  development,  and  in  all 
the  separate  departments  of  each,  there  should  be  a  move- 
ment appropriate  to  the  imitative,  practical,  or  rational 
character  of  the  development,  from  what  is,  practically, 
complete  dependence  on  others  to  a  lessening  depend- 
ence, then  a  gradual  approach  to  partial  self-depend- 
ence, which  slowly  increases  until  there  is  com- 
plete self-dependence,  in  the  sense  which  we  have  set 
forth. 

At  the  end  of  each  period,  and  each  important 
department  of  it,  there  should  be  an  attempt  to  obtain 
from  the  pupil  an  expression  of  his  highest  powers 
with  regard  to  the  subject  in  band.  These  will  be  best 
shown  in  the  ability  to  invent  more  or  less  original 
designs,  exercises,  and  the  like.  Thus  little  children 
of  six  years  of  age  sometimes  produce  extremely 
effective  and  clever  designs  in  kindergarten  drawing ; 
some  girls  and  boys  in  the  higher  classes  of  elementary 
schools  for  older  scholars  write  excellent  fairy  stories  or 
other  literary  compositions;  and  both  girls  and  boys 
invent  and  execute  new  models  in  cardboard-work, 
wood-work,  and  metal-work.     Children  of  all  ages  can 


254  EDUCATION 

be  educated  up  to  the  ability  to  write,  and  work,  their 
own  exercises  in  arithmetic. 

These  efforts  show  most  conclusively  that  self-activity 
and  self-dependence  in  their  best  forms  have  been 
secured,  and  that  the  learner  is  in  the  best  possible 
condition  for  further  progress. 

Education  should  now  have  accomplished  its  purpose. 
Educational  development  ought  now  to  be  supplanted  by 
self-development.  Self-activity,  self-dependence,  self- 
knowledge,  self-control,  and  self-criticism  ought  to 
characterise  the  life  of  the  individual,  who  whilst  using 
these  powers  for  securing  the  fullest  possible  living  of 
his  own  life,  should,  none  the  less,  also  regard  them  as 
the  means  of  co-ordinating  his  life  with  those  of  his 
fellows,  without  whom  his  own  life  and  powers  would 
be  sadly  wanting  in  fulness  and  richness. 

Herbart  says :  "  The  young  child  is  not  yet  capable 
of  valuing  the  benefit  of  education.  A  boy  of  twelve 
years,  rightly  guided  from  early  childhood,  prizes  it 
above  everything,  from  his  deep  sense  of  the  need  of 
guidance.  The  youth  of  sixteen  begins  to  take  on 
himself  the  teacher's  work  ;  he  has  partly  appropriated 
his  point  of  view,  he  accepts  it,  and  marks  out  for  him- 
self his  course  accordingly;  he  manages  himself  and 
compares  this  self-treatment  with  that  which  contin- 
uously fell  to  his  lot  from  the  teacher.  It  must  be 
so — for  he  who  knows  himself  best  and  looks  through 
himself  most  directly,  will,  at  times,  see  with  greater 
clearness,  than  he  who  always  remains  another  person. 
It  must  be  so — for  he  feels  himself  unnecessarily 
constrained,  and  his  obedience  transforms  itself  more 


GENERAL   PRINCIPLES  255 

and  more  into  forbearance  to  the  benefactor  of  earlier 
years 

'*  Moreover,  it  is  now  of  supreme  importance  that  the 
principles  become  perfectly  formed  and  purified,  which 
will .  henceforth  rule  the  life.  Instruction,  therefore, 
will  still  continue,  after  discipline  has  almost  dis- 
appeared. But  further,  instruction  no  longer  touches 
a  merely  receptive  mind ;  the  pupil  will  himself  judge. 
To  the  end  that  he  may  examine,  he  begins  by 
doubting.  That  he  may  be  free  from  his  embarrassing 
confinement  within  his  habitual  circle  of  thought, 
he  enters  the  sphere  of  other  opposing  opinions.  Little 
differences  of  views,  which  gradually  arise  and  have 
hitherto  remained  unnoticed,  acquire  voice  and  growth 
under  the  favouring  influence  of  strange  impressions,  to 
which  the  charm  of  novelty  gives  force 

'*  What  will  now  protect  the  toilsome  work  of  educa- 
tion ?  What  ought  to  protect  it  ?  What,  if  not  its 
inner  rightness,  the  truth  of  convictions,  the  clearness 
and  breadth  of  the  intellectual  gaze,  if  not  the  feeling 
of  mastery  over  men  and  opinions,  and  the  responsive 
inward  gratitude  for  that  care  which  has  rendered  such 
an  ascendency  possible  ?  " 

Comenius  very  happily  expresses  the  connection 
between  the  principles  of  stimulation,  interest,  inter- 
relation, pleasure,  sympathetic  control,  and  pain  (see 
next  section)  in  the  following  passage:  "  If  subjects  of 
study  are  rightly  arranged  and  taught,  they  them- 
selves attract  and  allure  all  save  very  exceptional 
natures;  and  if  they  are  not  rightly  taught,  the 
fault  is  in  the  teacher,  not  the  pupil.      Moreover,  if 


256  EDUCATION 

we  do  not  know  how  to  allure  by  skill,  we  shall 
certainly  not  succeed  by  the  application  of  mere 
force.  There  is  no  power  in  stripes  and  blows 
to  excite  a  love  of  literature,  but  a  great  power,  on  the 
contrary,  of  generating  weariness  and  disgust.  A 
musician  does  not  dash  his  instrument  against  a  wall, 
or  give  it  blows  and  cuffs,  because  he  cannot  draw 
music  from  it,  but  continues  to  apply  his  skill  till 
he  extracts  a  melody.  So  by  our  skill  we  have  to  bring 
the  minds  of  the  young  into  harmony,  and  to  the  love  of 
studies,  if  we  are  not  to  make  the  careless  unwilling  and 
the  torpid  stolid.  A  spur  and  stimulus  are  often 
needed,  but  a  sharp  word  or  a  public  reproof  or  the 
praise  of  others  who  are  doing  well,  will  generally 
suffice/' 

The  Principle  of  Pain.— There  can  hardly  be  any  doubt 
that  pain  has  a  very  valuable  part  to  play  in  the 
economy  of  nature.  It  is,  so  to  speak,  the  sentinel 
which  nature  sets  to  give  the  alarm  when  enemies  are 
beginning  to  attack  our  bodily  kingdom  and  endanger 
our  sovereignty.  Also  it  is  the  adverse  criticism  of 
nature  upon  our  methods  of  dealing  with  her.  Again, 
it  is  nature's  way  of  punishing  the  folly,  ignorance,  or 
viciousness  of  the  individual.  Not  less  is  it  the  inevit- 
able outcome  of  the  ordinary  conditions  of  the  universe, 
of  which  the  individual  is  the  unfortunate  victim. 
Certainly  nature  is  by  no  means  sparing  in  the  use  of 
this  terribly  potent  and  all  too  familiar  penalty. 

Prom  another  point  of  view  pain  may  be  regarded 
as  a  necessary  discipline  against  itself.  Since  pain  is 
inevitable  man  must  be  prepared  to  meet  it.     Often  the 


GENERAL  PRINCIPLES  257 

only  possible  preventive  of  severe  suflFering  is  a  milder 
form  of  it.  This  may  be  exemplified  by  the  suffering 
endared  through  vaccination  as  a  means  of  resisting,  or 
reducing,  the  pains  to  which  one  is  liable  in  a  small-pox 
epidemic. 

Perhaps  we  may  even  look  upon  pain  as,  up  to  a 
certain  point,  the  sauce  of  life,  which  adds  relish  and 
piquancy  to  what  might  otherwise  be  a  dead  sea  of 
sweetness.  In  any  case  it  has  taken,  and  is  taking,  a 
large  part,  whether  for  good  or  evil,  in  the  development 
of  the  race  and  the  individual. 

Whilst,  as  we  have  insisted,  the  conditions  referred 
to  under  the  principle  of  sympathetic  control  ought  to 
be  sufficient  under  ordinary  conditions,  there  are,  un- 
fortunately, extraordinary  conditions  which  must  be 
taken  into  account  and  provided  for.  The  mind  is  as 
much  subject  to  disorders,  diseases,  infections,  accidents, 
incompleteness,  malformations,  and  so  on,  as  the  body. 
There  is,  therefore,  need  for  preventive  and  curative 
agents.  The  good  forms  of  development  have  to  be 
strengthened  and  improved,  and  the  bad  forms  must  be 
removed  or  repressed. 

Just  as  in  the  case  of  the  body  it  is  found  advan- 
tageous to  voluntarily  endure  considerable  suffering 
with  the  hope  of  escaping  a  very  much  more  serious 
amount,  so  it  is  sometimes  expedient  to  inflict  mental 
pain  with  a  view  to  prevent  the  continuing  of  such  lines 
of  thought  or  action  as  are  morally  certain  to  bring 
about  results  which  will  involve  far  greater  and  more 
permanent  forms  of  mental  suffering. 

It  cannot,  however,  too  often,  or  too  earnestly,  be 

R 


258  EDUCATION 

insisted  upon  that  only  when  all  other  means  have 
really  failed  should  any  kind  of  pain  be  purposely 
employed.  And  this  because  it  is  in  itself  a  mischievous 
and  dangerous  influence.  It  is  a  destructive  force  for 
preventing,  if  possible,  still  further  destruction ;  and  a 
corrupting  influence  used  to  defeat  still  more  corrupt- 
ing influences.  It  may  be  compared  to  those  poisons 
which,  when  skilfully  used  for  medicinal  purposes,  tend 
to  secure  health  instead  of  causing  death. 

Pain,  as  such,  interferes  with  and  prejudices  the 
general  movement  of  life ;  blunts,  and,  maybe,  destroys 
some  of  the  more  delicate  elements  of  the  mind: 
represses  and  checks  the  development  of  the  self :  and 
disturbs,  if  it  does  not  destroy,  that  friendly  relation 
between  the  teacher  and  the  pupil  which  is  so  necessary 
to  the  success  of  the  educative  processes.  All  pain 
does  this,  to  some  extent,  and  how  much  more  is  it 
likely  to  result  from  pain  inflicted  by  one  who  can  for- 
bear giving  it,  and  whose  kindly  intention  it  is  often 
almost  impossible  for  the  victim  to  appreciate. 

Very  serious  responsibility,  therefore,  rests  upon  the 
person  who  employs  pain  as  an  agent  in  education.  He 
must  be  convinced,  upon  reasonable  grounds,  that  he 
has  rightly  estimated  the  facts  of  the  case :  that  the 
result  is  likely  to  be  the  decided  advantage  of  the 
individual :  and  that  he  is  making  use  of  the  best 
remedy.  Most  people  will  admit  that  it  is  not  easy  to 
satisfy  these  requirements.  Indeed  it  is  sometimes 
impossible,  and  the  only  thing  that  can  be  done  is  to 
trust  to  one's  intuition  at  the  moment ;  but  this  should 
only  be  done  in  cases  of  extreme  urgency. 


GENERAL  PRINCIPLES  259 

Of  the  means  by  which  the  educator  can  assnre  him- 
self that  it  is  necessary  to  nse  pain  as  an  agent  of  pre- 
vention or  reform,  we  can  say  little  here.  This  is  a 
matter  which  comes  under  the  method  rather  than  the 
theory  of  education.  But  we  may  point  out  that  much 
psychological  knowledge,  an  extensive  acquaintance  with 
and  knowledge  of  the  individual,  and  some  acquaintance 
with  the  pathology  of  the  mind  and  body,  are  required 
for  thoroughly  intelligent  and  scientijBc  action  in  the 
matter.  Too  often  it  is  the  case  that  young  people  are, 
through  ignorance,  subjected  to  treatment  which  only 
aggravates  their  disorders,  or  even  produces  new  ones. 
Supplant  rather  than  suppress,  or,  suppress  by  sup- 
planting, is  the  golden  rule. 

There  is,  it  is  true,  a  certain  amount  of  traditional 
and  accurate  knowledge  about  the  more  common  con- 
ditions which  seem  to  demand  the  use  of  pain.  As  an 
example  we  may  refer  to  the  fact  of  the  use  of  corporal 
punishment  often  being  successful  in  checking  acts  of 
cruelty,  when  all  other  means  have  failed — it  is  even 
said  to  be  effective  with  adult  criminals,  who  have  been 
guilty  of  robbery  with  assault. 

But  in  every  separate  instance  of  such  cases  there  are 
generally  many  special  features  which  need  to  be  taken 
account  of,  if  we  are  to  treat  the  case  successfully.  It 
is  necessary,  therefore,  that  we  should,  as  far  as  possible, 
be  able  to  trace  the  evil  to  its  real  source,  and  to 
detect  all  its  important  special  features.  Until  this  is 
done,  very  little  is  possible  in  the  way  of  remedy. 

Having  traced  an  evil  to  its  origin,  we  then  want  a 
knowledge  of  its  ordinary  development,  if  left  to  itself, 


260  EDUCATION 

and  its  natural  termination.  Also  we  must  know  wliat 
influences  most  affect  the  mischievous  activities,  how 
they  affect  them,  and  what  is  likely  to  be  the  order  of 
events  when  they  are  systematically  applied.  Only 
when  so  equipped  can  we  hope  to  be  able  to  really 
grapple  with  the  evils. 

Speaking  generally,  we  shall  expect  to  find  that 
there  will  be  disorders  of  willing,  knowing,  and  feeling. 
In  willing  there  may  be  that  permanent  violence  of 
activity  which  is  known  as  obstinacy,  or  the  occasional 
excess  which  we  term  rashness.  Or  we  may  have  to 
deal  with  the  opposite  extremes  of  want  of  resolution 
and  consistency.  The  control  of  thoughts  and  feelings 
may  be  very  weak,  so  that  there  is  chronic  inattention, 
frivolity,  and  the  like.  Laziness  is  often  the  evidence 
of  a  general  weakness  of  will. 

Sometimes  the  power  of  knowing,  in  the  sense  of 
quickly  taking  account  of  experiences  and  trains  of 
thought,  is  extremely  keen,  and  apt  to  be  superficial ; 
whilst  the  thorough  assimilation  which  is  necessary  for 
full  and  clear  retention  is  proportionally  weak.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  grasp  of  an  idea  may  be  so  thorough 
and  fixed,  but  perverted,  that  it  amounts  to  a  delusion ; 
and  this  might  grow  into  monomania.  Carelessness, 
inaccuracy,  and  certain  elements  of  ignorance,  involve 
weaknesses  in  the  powers  of  knowing  and  willing. 

In  the  feelings  .we  may  find  the  excesses  which  lead 
to  the  various  forms  of  passion,  or  the  defects  which  are 
shown  in  a  lack  of  enjoyment  and  relish  of  those 
influences  usually  employed,  with  success,  to  stimulate 
the  receiving  activities.     Hence   come   violent  anger, 


GENERAL   PRINCIPLES  261 

hysterical  enthusiasm,  despair,  unresponsiveness,  in- 
difference, inactivity,  and  so  on.  The  sentiments  may 
be  perverted,  and  excessive  or  defective  in  their  action. 
Thus  we  get  viciousness,  idolatry,  and  absence  of 
sympathetic  qualities. 

Whenever  such  defects  cannot  be  remedied  by  any 
of  the  positive  and  pleasurable  forms  of  educative 
influences,  then  it  will  be  necessary  to  make  use  of  the 
negative  and  painful  agencies. 

Of  course  we  must  not  expect  that  the  disorders  will 
usually,  or  even  often,  be  of  a  simple  kind.  There 
will  always  be  elements  of  disorder  of  willing,  knowing, 
and  feeling  in  every  case  of  fault;  and  the  only 
instances  of  comparative  simplicity  will  be  those  in 
which  one  of  the  powers  is  very  predominantly  at  fault, 
whilst  the  others  are  very  subordinately  so.  Often 
there  will  be  a  more  or  less  serious,  because  more  or 
less  unanalysable,  complexity  in  the  disorders.  Such 
cases  will  require  very  great  knowledge,  skill,  and  care 
in  their  treatment. 

Little  need  be  said  about  those  physical  disorders 
which  are  the  source  of,  or  very  much  increase,  certain 
mental  complaints.  It  is  only  necessary  that  the 
educator  should  have  a  suflSciently  intelligent  know- 
ledge of  them  to  know  which  are  the  more  common  of 
them,  and  when  they  are  probably  present ;  and,  there- 
fore, when  a  medical  man  should  be  called  in. 

The  first  aim  should  be  to  prevent  diseases.  There 
should  be  what  we  may  call  a  system  of  mental,  as 
well  as  physical,  hygiene ;  which  would  consist  in  the 
careful  and  complete  observance  of  all  the  principles 


262  EDUCATION 

which  secure  the  best  development  of  an  individual. 
When,  in  spite  of  all  our  efforts  to  prevent  them, 
diseases  arise,  as  they  will  arise,  our  efforts  must  be 
directed  to  removing  the  causes,  and  the  effects  already 
produced ;  or,  we  must  endeavour  so  to  influence  the 
diseases  as  to  reduce  their  ill  effects  to  the  lowest 
possible  amount. 

As  to  deciding  whether  the  result  will  be  to  the 
advantage  of  the  patient :  this  is  also  a  matter  in  which 
certain  traditional  views  may  be  taken  as  guides, 
whilst  in  other  cases  personal  judgment  based  upon  the 
considerations  mentioned  above  must  settle  the  ques- 
tion, or  the  opinions  of  experienced  experts  may  be 
accepted. 

We  may  classify  the  pain  agencies  under  three 
heads :  the  infliction  of  specific  forms  of  painful  ex- 
periences— whether  these  be  artificially  imposed,  or 
allowed  to  arise  out  of  a  course  of  wrong  actions — ^all 
forms  of  compulsion,  and  all  kinds  of  restraint.  These 
may  be  applied  either  in  the  sphere  of  the  reason,  the 
feelings,  or  the  senses.  Censure,  sarcasm,  and  tasks  to 
be  learnt,  are  means  of  causing  rational  discomfort. 
Making  individuals  appear  ridiculous,  refusing  to  con- 
tinue general  and  pleasant  relations,  enforcing  dis- 
tasteful duties,  and  declining  to  accept  usual  tributes 
of  affection  or  esteem,  are  methods  of  affecting  the 
feelings  and  sentiments  uncomfortably.  Manual  im- 
positions, confinement,  denying  favourite  foods,  drinks 
and  toys,  and  beating,  are  disagreeable  sense  experi- 
ences. 

Many  of    such   forms  of  pain  are  brought   about 


GENERAL  PRINOirLES  263 

through  the  ordinary  actions  of  the  individual.  All 
kinds  of  physical  pains  are  being  constantly  inflicted 
through  ignorance  or  wilfulness  in  action ;  feelings  are 
distressed  through  the  loss  of  the  sympathy  or  esteem 
of  others;  and  intellectual  suffering  is  caused  when 
conceit  and  folly  produce  humiliating  failure. 

Like  Eousseau,  Mr.  Herbert  Spencer,  in  his  book  on 
education,  raises  the  question  whether^  after  all,  arti- 
ficial methods  of  inflicting  pain  are  necessary,  and, 
therefore,  justifiable.  He  points  out  that  the  infliction 
of  pain  by  one  person  upon  another  is  sure  to  produce 
a  feeling  of  resentment  on  the  part  of  the  victim. 
After  giving  detailed  illustrations  of  the  "  discipline  of 
natural  consequences,"  he  urges  the  following  in  favour 
of  it: 

''First;  that  it  gives  that  rational  knowledge  of 
right  and  wrong  conduct  which  results  from  personal 
experience  of  their  good  and  bad  consequences. 
Second;  that  the  child,  suffering  nothing  more  than 
the  painful  effects  of  its  own  wrong  actions,  must 
recognise  more  or  less  clearly  the  justice  of  the 
penalties.  Third  ;  that  recognising  the  justice  of  the 
penalties,  and  receiving  them  through  the  working  of 
things  rather  than  at  the  hands  of  an  individual,  its 
temper  is  less  disturbed ;  while  the  parent  fulfilling  the 
comparatively  passive  duty  of  letting  the  natural 
penalties  be  felt,  preserves  a  comparative  equanimity. 
Fourth;  that  mutual  exasperations  being  thus  pre- 
vented, a  much  happier,  and  a  more  influential 
relation,  will  exist  between  parent  and  child." 
.  Now,    while    it    is    absolutely    essential    that    the 


264  EDUCATION 

"  discipline  of  consequences "  should  be,  and  must 
always  be  from  the  nature  of  the  case,  realised  by  the 
individual,  yet  it  is  another  thing  to  say  that  this  is 
the  only  good  method,  or  the  best.  If  the  infliction  of 
pain  is  regarded  only  as  a  penal  or  a  retributive  matter, 
then  such  a  theory  might  be  regarded  as  satisfactory. 
But  in  education  we  regard  pain  as  a  preventive, 
reformative,  and  curative  agent.  Prom  this  point  of 
view  there  is  as  much  reason,  and  justification,  for 
interfering  in  mental  as  in  physical  irregularities. 

It  is  true  that  the  learner  will  be  corrected,  sooner  op 
later,  by  natural  consequences ;  but  it  is  equally  true 
that  he  would  be  generally  educated,  sooner  or  later,  if 
left  alone.  If,  therefore,  artificial  education  by  the 
reasoned  and  systematic  application  of  pleasurable  con* 
ditions  be  justifiable,  not  less  is  education  through  pain 
reasonable,  when  the  necessity  for  it  arises.  It  is  not 
simply  education  that  is  required,  but  the  best  education 
in  the  shortest  time. 

Again,  it  has  been  very  forcibly  urged  that  the 
necessity  for  interfering  so  as  to  prevent  the  too 
serious  consequences  which  would  often  arise,  may 
easily  lead  to  the  child  regarding  the  parent  or  teacher 
as  one  who  is  setting  traps  for  it,  or  at  least  as  being 
adversely  neutral.  To  this  may  be  added  the  criticism 
that  any  very  striking  natural  consequences,  especially 
in  certain  intellectual  faults,  are  so  long  in  coming  that 
irreparable  mischief  may  have  been  done  before  the 
necessity  for  reform  is  realised.  Also,  the  machineiy 
of  a  system  of  education  creates  special  conditions 
which  need  special  remedies.    We  cannot  afford  to 


GENERAL   PRINCIPLES  265 

wait  for  oonrses  of  wrong  actions  to  work  themselves 
ont. 

But  Mr.  Herbert  Spencer  himself  allows  the  necessity 
for  other  means.  He  says :  "  Daring  infancy  a  consider- 
able amount  of  absolutism  is  necessary.  A  three-year- 
old  urchin  playing  with  an  open  razor,  cannot  be  allowed 
to  learn  by  this  discipline  of  consequences;  for  the 
consequences  may  be  too  serious.  But  as  intelligence 
increases,  the  number  of  peremptory  interferences  may 
be,  and  should  be,  diminished;  with  the  view  of 
gradually  ending  them  as  maturity  is  approached." 

The  discipline  of  consequences  should  be  employed 
as  often  as  possible,  in  its  natural  form,  and  should  be 
the  model  for  all  artificial  metJiods  of  inflicting  pain  for 
educational  purposes.  The  pain  should,  as  far  as 
possible,  be  of  the  same  nature  as  that  which  would 
ordinarily  arise  if  there  were  no  personal  interference. 
Also  it  should  be  clearly  understood  that  a  certain 
action,  or  series  of  actions,  will  be  inevitably  followed 
by  a  given  form  of  discipline. 

When  the  use  of  pain  is  necessary,  the  mildest,  most 
refined,  and  what  we  may  call  the  highest,  forms  should 
first  be  tried.  Even  these  should  be  employed  with 
hesitation,  and  the  descent  to  lower  forms  ought  to  be 
undertaken  very  reluctantly.  Only  as  the  last  resource 
of  last  resources  should  the  infliction  of  blows  upon  the 
body  be  made  use  of ;  for  it  is,  more  or  less,  brutal  in 
its  nature  and  brutalising  in  its  effects.  This  should 
even  be  the  last  method  employed  with  the  brute  beasts; 
as,  indeed,  it  seems  to  be  the  last  way  in  which  they 
correct  each  other* 


266  EDUCATION 

Oar  aim  should  always  be  to  gain  an  educational 
result  with  the  least  possible  friction,  or  disturbance. 
At  the  best,  the  use  of  pain  is  a  very  expensive  way  of 
obtaining  educational  good ;  it  is  worse  than  foolish, 
therefore,  to  omit  any  means,  or  opportunity,  of  lessen- 
ing its  amount  and  frequency. 

It  is  somewhat  unfortunate  that  the  term  "  corporal 
punishment"  has  been  confined  to  caning,  birching, 
strapping,  or  hitting.  There  are  many  other  forms  of 
bodily  punishment,  such  as :  pinching,  shaking,  postur- 
ing, long-continued  drilling,  and  depriving  of  food.  In 
fact  there  are  comparatively  few  forms  of  ordinary 
punishment  which  do  not  involve  bodily  pains.  All 
such  are  of  the  same  class ;  and  some  of  the  latter  are 
even  more  objectionable  than  the  former. 

Use  pain  for  the  purpose  of  lessening,  if  not  abolish- 
ing, pain,  should  be  the  watchword  of  the  educator. 

Not  only  are  sarcasm,  contempt,  bullying,  threaten 
ing,  and  punishing,  entirely  unjustifiable  in  them* 
selves,  under  ordinary  circumstances,  but  they  defeat 
their  own  ends  in  the  long  run.  They  are  extreme 
measures,  and  to  employ  them  for  common  events  is  to 
waste  energy  on  such,  and  to  deprive  the  means  of  the 
elements  of  efiectiveness — severity  and  rareness.  There 
are  no  resources  for  serious  and  critical  cases  if  extra- 
ordinary measures  are  employed  for  ordinary  purposes. 
The  chief  conditions  for  success  in  the  control  of  others 
are  definiteness,  decision,  and  a  reasonable  persistence 
in  applying  the  principles  of  sympathetic  control. 

Some  (General  Eemarks. — It  is  very  necessary  to  re- 
cognise the  fact  that  whilst  without  a  scientific  system 


GENERAL  PRINCIPLES  267 

of  education  there  is  very  great  loss  in  the  extent  and 
fulness  in  the  development  of  an  individual,  yet  it  is 
possible  so  to  over-elaborate  educative  processes  and 
conditions  that  they  become  a  burden,  and,  therefore, 
an  obstacle  to  development.  There  are  ways  of  trying 
to  be  helpful  which  only  hinder. 

Much  in  the  same  way  that  undiluted  milk  from  the 
cow  cannot  be  properly  assimilated  by  an  infant,  and  it 
may  practically  starve  on  too  rich  a  diet,  so  also  the 
infant  mind  fails  to  be  properly  nourished  by  un- 
organised experiences.  But  the  other  side  of  the 
matter  also  applies.  While  it  is  necessary  to  dilute 
with  water  the  milk  for  a  child,  yet  the  addition  of  too 
much  water  will  lead  to  starvation ;  similarly,  the 
endeavour  to  make  every  little  detail  in  education  the 
subject  of  elaborate  application  of  principles  will  result 
in  confusion  instead  of  clearness,  and  hindrance  in 
place  of  help. 

Without  pressing  the  analogy  too  far,  it  is  probably 
correct  to  say  that  the  evil  of  over-education  is  as 
serious  as  that  of  under-education,  though  immeasur- 
ably less  common.  Another  good  illustration  of  this 
truth  is  seen  in  the  over-training  of  athletes,  which 
results  in  weakness  instead  of  strength. 

Aristotle,  speaking  of  physical  training,  remarks: 
"The  evil  of  excessive  training  in  early  years  is 
strikingly  proved  by  the  example  of  Olympic  victors ; 
for  not  more  than  two  or  three  of  them  have  gained  a 
prize  both  as  boys  and  as  men  ;  their  early  training  and 
severe  gymnastic  exercises  exhausted  their  constitu- 
tions "  (Dr.  Jowett's  translation).     He  also  says :  "  Men 


268  EDUCATION 

ought  not  to  labour  at  the  same  time  with  their  minds 
and  with  their  bodies ;  for  the  two  kinds  of  labour 
are  opposed  to  one  another,  the  labour  of  the  body 
impedes  the  mind,  and  the  labour  of  the  mind  the 
body."  Of  course  more  or  less  severe,  continuous,  and 
absorbing  work  is  understood. 

There  is  confusion  in  too  much  detail  as  in  too  great 
complexity.  An  adult  would  realise  this  very  clearly  if 
a  botanist  began  to  explain  to  him  what  a  plant  was  by 
speaking  of  its  molecular  organisation.  Not  too  much, 
but  just  enough,  of  detail  is  what  is  required.  Of  course 
it  is  diflScult  to  decide  what  is  just  enough.  But  we 
can  fix  upon  a  working  average,  and  begin  with  this. 
Then  if  there  is  a  lack  of  readiness  in  grasping  the 
subject,  we  must  go  rather  less  fully  into  detail,  until 
we  find  the  required  facility  of  understanding.  If,  on 
the  other  hand,  there  is  prompt  mastery,  then  greater 
detail  of  knowledge  should  be  presented. 

The  capacity  of  children  in  this  respect  will  be  best 
known  through  careful  observation  of  their  eflforts  when 
they  are  working  in  their  own  way  and  for  their  own 
ends.  The  principles  of  self-activity  and  doing,  accom- 
plish more  than  helping  development  in  themselves, 
they  show  us  also  how  we  can  best  help  it. 

Again  there  should  be  great  caution  exercised  as  to 
the  kind  and  number  of  truths  which  it  is  attempted 
to  arrive  at  through  one  object,  or  class  of  objects. 
Though  it  is  true  that  as  a  matter  of  fact  everything 
involves,  more  or  less  remotely,  every  great  principle 
of  knowledge,  yet  it  is  neither  expedient  nor  con- 
venient, even  if  it  were  possible,  to   try   to  get  the 


GENERAL   PRINCIPLES        "  269 

beginner  to  realise  this,  in  however  concrete  or  practical 
a  form. 

It  must  be  remembered  that  it  is  only  the  person 
who  has  obtained  knowledge  of  many  principles  through 
much  experience  of,  and  thought  about,  many  different 
classes  of  things,  who  is  able  to  realise,  in  a  signifi- 
cant way,  that  everything  is,  more  or  less,  in  every- 
thing. 

Jacotot  was  quite  right,  philosophically,  in  insisting 
that  "  all  is  in  all " ;  but  he  was  mistaken,  practically, 
in  trying  to  get  complete  knowledge  of  a  subject  from 
a  very  limited  amount  of  its  material.  The  intelligence 
can,  when  it  has  much  knowledge,  trace  the  relation  of 
truths  to  each  other  in  such  a  way  as  to  find  many 
truths  in  one  fact.  But  though  it  is  true,  in  such  a 
sense,  to  say  that  all  is  in  each,  yet  it  is  not  true  to 
say  that  all  comes  from  each,  in  so  far  as  the  way 
in  which  we  obtain  our  knowledge  of  separate  truths 
is  concerned.  Some  from  all,  before  all  in  each,  is 
nearer  the  truth. 

As  a  rule  it  will  be  well,  at  first,  to  make  use 
of  different,  though  closely  related,  sets  of  facts  for 
demonstrating  certain  truths ;  and,  afterwards,  make 
use  of  the  same  material  for  showing  that  two — and 
later  on,  three — principles  are  involved.  If  there  be 
any  justification  whatever  for  following  the  mental 
evolution  of  the  race,  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  this 
is  the  right  way. 

One  other  suggestion  may  be  indicated.  Not  every 
item  of  truth,  or  detail  of  development,  is  equally  im- 
portant with  the  others.     For  example,  it  is  usually 


270  EDUCATION 

better  to  understand  the  general  law  of  friction  than  to 
know  the  actual  amount  of  friction  in  one  or  two  special 
cases;  and  it  is  of  greater  benefit,  in  most  cases,  to 
develop  all  the  senses  to  an  average  level  in  each  case 
— ^that  of  sight  and  touch  being  higher  than  the  others 
— than  to  specially  train  one  and  neglect  the  others.  To 
endeavour  to  develop  every  power  to  the  same  extent 
may  result  in  sacrificing  the  stronger  powers  through 
comparative  neglect,  and  still  further  weakening  the 
weak  powers  through  overstraining  them.  Such  an 
harmonious  proportion  as  is  likely  to  be  most  effective 
must  be  striven  for. 

Where  all  is  emphatic  there  is  no  emphasis.  To  have 
too  much  effort  given  to  each  point  is  sometimes  not 
to  have  enough  given  to  them  as  a  whole.  Some 
rather  amusing  instances  of  this  are  seen  in  text-books 
which  seek  to  impress  the  relative  importance  of  the 
subject  matter  upon  the  reader  by  the  use  of  six  or 
seven  different  kinds  of  type,  and  three  or  four  arrange- 
ments of  paragraphs,  on  the  same  page ;  and  in  the 
books  of  those  students  who  underline  nearly  every 
word  on  the  pages  of  their  books  with  differently 
coloured  inks  or  pencils,  and  then  add  short  lines  for 
the  chiefest  of  all. 

There  are  truths  and  beauties  which  only  the  whole 
can  give,  just  as  there  are  those  which  only  the  parts 
possess.  We  must  endeavour,  so  to  speak,  neither  to 
lose  the  forest  in  a  tree,  nor  the  tree  in  a  forest. 

The  educator  must,  therefore,  carefully  observe  the 
actual  development  of  the  learner,  so  that  he  may  the 
better  understand  the  problem,  and  make  use  of  the 


GENERAL   PRINCIPLES  271 

development  itself  as  a  means  of  furthering  its  own 
progress. 

But  in  so  doing,  except  in  the  case  of  individual 
education,  he  must  beware  of  being  misled  by  the 
exceptionally  capable  or  deficient.  For  purposes  of 
collective  education  it  is  the  average  individual  who 
must  be  the  standard.  Whilst  a  musical  genius  may  in 
childhood  play  like  an  angel  and  compose  like  a  god,  the 
ordinary  person,  after  much  training  and  effort,  may 
only  be  able  to  play  like  a  barrel-organ  and  compose 
like  a  machine,  when  an  adult. 

It  should  be  observed  that  each  general  principle  of 
education  is  itself  a  subject  to  which  the  other  principles 
are  to  be  applied.  Thus  the  principle  of  doing  ought 
to  be  worked  out  according  to  the  general  principle  of 
development,  and  the  principles  of  interest,  prepara- 
tion, repetition,  pleasure,  and  pain  (if  necessary).  Of 
course  the  two  incompatible  principles  of  pleasure  and 
pain  cannot  be  applied  to  each  other,  but  the  former 
should  supplement,  and  supplant,  the  latter  as  much  as 
possible. 

Aristotle  pointed  out  the  need  of  following  the  order 
of  development  in  these  words:  ''As  the  body  is 
prior  in  order  of  generation  to  the  soul,  so  the 
irrational  is  prior  to  the  rational.  The  proof  is  that 
anger  and  will  and  desire  are  implanted  in  children 
from  their  very  birth,  but  reason  and  understanding 
are  developed  as  they  grow  older.  Wherefore  the  care 
of  the  body  ought  to  precede  that  of  the  soul,  and  the 
training  of  the  appetitive  part  should  follow  ;  none  the 
less  our  care  of  it  must  be  for  the  sake  of  the  reason,  and 


272  EDUCATION 

our  care  of  the  body  for  the  sake  of  the  soul."  Again 
he  says :  '*  Now  it  is  clear  that  in  education  habit  must 
go  before  reason,  and  the  body  before  the  mind." 

The  testimony  of  great  teachers  in  support  of  the 
educational  maxims  discussed  in  this  chapter  is  simply 
overwhelming;  in  fact,  the  history  of  education  is 
largely  a  record  of  the  discovery  and  re-discovery, 
assertion  and  re-assertion,  of  them  repeated  over  and 
over  again.  Thus  Jacotot  (1770-1840)  in  his  famous 
paradox  "  all  is  in  all "  endeavours  to  proceed  from  the 
most  simple  and  superficial  knowledge  about  a  given 
subject,  step  by  step,  to  a  most  complete  and  exhaustive 
knowledge  of  the  thing  itself,  and  of  all  that  is  related 
to  it,  by  means  of  analyses  of  ever-increasing  fulness 
and  depth. 

Basedow  (1723-1790)  over-elaborated  the  progress 
from  the  concrete  to  the  abstract  by  ill-chosen  and  too 
detailed  representations  and  imitations  of  scenes  and 
actions.  Everything  was  to  begin  with  intuition  or 
teaching  by  sight.  He  says:  "A  boy  whose  acutest 
faculties  are  his  senses,  and  who  has  no  perception  of 
anything  abstract  must  first  of  all  be  made  acquainted 
with  the  world  as  it  presents  itself  to  the  senses*  Let 
this  be  shown  him  in  nature  herself,  or,  where  this 
is  impossible,  in  faithful  drawings  or  models." 

Samuel  Wilderspin,  speaking  of  his  early  experiences 
and  diflSculties  with  infants,  exclaims:  "It  was  now 
evident  that  the  senses  of  the  children  must  be 
engaged,  that  the  great  secret  of  training  them  was  to 
descend  to  their  level,  and  become  a  child ;  and  that 
the  error  had  been  to  expect  in  infancy  what  is  only  the 


GENERAL   PRINCIPLES  273 

product  of  after  years"  (Leitch,  "Practical  Educa- 
tionists"). Thus  he  arrives  at  the  rule:  From  the 
Birople  to  the  complex.  Oomenius  lays  down  as 
principles  of  guidance  the  assertions  that:  "Nature 
proceeds  from  the  more  easy  to  the  more  difficult ; " 
**  Nature  does  not  overweight  itself,  but  is  content  with 
few  things  at  a  time ;  "  and,  "  Nature  does  all  things 
uniformly  "  (Laurie). 

From  among  the  more  recent  writers  on  practical 
education,  we  may  quote  Mr.  Arthur  Sidgwick  and  the 
late  Mr.  W.  H.  Widgery,  in  reference  to  the  principle  of 
doing.  The  former  in  his  lecture  on  *'  Stimulus"  says  : 
"Another  potent  stimulus  to  thought  and  interest  is 
supplied  by  getting  the  pupils,  wherever  it  is  possible, 
in  however  humble  a  department  of  knowledge,  to  share 
in  anything  like  original  research  ;  the  boy  may  be  set 
to  find  instances  of  a  point  of  style  or  grammar  for 
himself ;  or  if  there  is  a  mistake  in  his  notes  he  may  be 
made  to  correct  it;  or,  still  more  delightful,  he  may 
confute  his  master." 

Mr.  Widgery  writes :  "  I  managed  to  get  some 
algebra  into  the  class  this  morning  by  making  boys  do 
a  large  number  of  examples  in  books,  saving  the 
answers,  and  then  making  them  get  the  factors  back- 
ward. They  seemed  to  feel  under  a 'moral  obligation  to 
do  what  they  knew  had  only  just  passed  through  their 
hands "  (''Life  of  W.  H.  Widgery,"  by  W.  K.  Hill). 

A  good  example  of  the  working  of  the  principle  of 
sympathetic  control  is  also  given  by  Mr.  Widgery. 
He  writes:  "I  gave  my  boys  plenty  of  rope  to-day 
and  let  them  ask  me  as  many  questions  as  they  liked. 

S 


274  EDUCATION 

And  wasn't  I  tired  ?  "  His  biographer  says :  "  Once  he 
made  every  boy  in  the  class  write  down  individually, 
(1)  What  had  been  his  chief  difficulty  in  learning 
Euclid's  geometry ;  and  (2)  How  he  would  like  to  be 
taught  the  propositions  it  contained." 

Dr.  Welldon  has  said :  "  K  a  boy  did  not  know  the 
nature  of  the  sentence  upon  which  he  was  engaged, 
there  was  little  or  no  probability  of  his  being  able  to 
convert  it  into  correct  Latin."  Thus  he  recognises  the 
maxim :  from  the  known  to  the  unknown.  Professor 
L.  C.  Miall  asserts  that  "  Children,  young  people,  and 
most  men  and  women  are  more  easily  interested  in 
what  is  actual  and  concrete  than  in  what  is  theoretical 
and  abstract."  The  same  writer  contends  that  "Sar- 
casm becomes  base  and  cowaixily  when  the  power  of 
retort  is  taken  away  ....  the  teacher  must  not  use 
biting  words."  Mr.  Thring  says :  **  Force  and  pre- 
sumptuous superiority  must  be  discarded  for  ever  from 
the  kingdom  of  life,  and  the  learner  s  world.  Educa- 
tion requires  that  the  right  object  shall  be  pursued,  and 

pursued  in  the   right  way The  most  complete 

definition  of  the  right  way  is,  the  winning  love  by 
love."  Dr.  Abbott  affirms  that :  *'  It  is  a  pleasure  to 
healthy  children  to  move  and  to  act ;  and  it  must  be 
the  trainer's  object  not  to  suppress  action  but  to  regu- 
late it  with  a  view  to  producing  good  habits." 

Canon  Daniel  has  well  said :  "  It  is  as  unwise  to 
withhold  the  rod  in  all  cases  as  to  prescribe  it  in  all 
cases.  Children  sometimes  grow  so  vicious  through 
neglect,  that  they  will  not  respond  to  the  motives  that 
actuate  well-trained  children,  and  in  such  cases  severity 
becomes  indispensable  until  higher  influences  gradually 
render  it  unnecessary." 


CHAPTER  VI 

THE  DBVBLOPMBNT  OF  IDEAS 

The  consideration  of  the  principal  features  of  geaeral 
mental  development  has  prepared  the  way  for  dealing 
with  one  of  the  special  elements  which  is  particularly 
concerned  with  education.  Since  we  regard  the  sys- 
tematic imparting  of  knowledge  as  the  essential  element 
for  educational  development,  it  is  necessary  that  we 
should  examine  very  closely  into  its  nature,  so  as  to  be 
able  to  clearly  understand  how  best  to  secure  the 
highest  and  greatest  results  from  it. 

By  knowledge  we  generally  understand  those 
groups  of  related  judgments  which  make  up  the 
mental  whole  which  corresponds  to  a  physical  whole. 
Knowledge,  therefore,  consists  of  more  or  less 
organised  judgments  about  things.  Our  idea  of 
an  orange  is  made  up  of  the  judgments  that  it 
is  a  round,  yellow,  soft,  sweet,  odorous,  rined,  pulped, 
thing.  Our  knowledge  of  an  orange  will  involve 
further  judgments  about  the  above  points,  and  the 
relating  of  them  in  a  botanical  sense ;  also  of  judg- 
ments about  the  value  of  the  fruit  as  a  food,  and 
for  commercial  purposes.     But,  as  we  shall  see  later 


276  EDUCATION 

on,  some  ideas  are  simple  in  that  they  consist  of  only 
one  judgment. 

Thus  we  see  that  knowledge  is  built  up  from  judg- 
ments. Now,  a  judgment  is  neither  more  nor  less,  in 
its  simplest  form,  than  the  exercising  of  the  power 
of  knowing :  the  mental  marking  off  of  likeness  and 
difference.  This  may  be  a  direct  and  immediate  result 
necessarily  involved  in  the  reaction  of  mind,  as  when 
we  mark  off  light  from  darkness ;  or  it  may  be  the  out- 
come of  a  number  of  such  results,  which  have  them- 
selves been  related  by  a  higher  exercise  of  judgment, 
as  when  we  judge  that,  since  colours  are  the  results  of 
certain  rates  of  vibration  of  light  waves,  if  a  disc  on 
which  different  coloured  bands  have  been  painted  is 
made  to  revolve  at  a  sufficient  rate  the  result  will  be 
an  approach  to  the  appearance  of  white  colour. 

Knowing,  in  a  lower  or  higher  form,  is  an  element  in 
every  state  of  consciousness,  from  the  very  beginning 
to  the  end  of  life.  It  is  regarded  as  the  highest  attri- 
bute of  man,  because  in  him  it  incomparably  exceeds 
that  of  any  other  animal ;  whilst  there  is  no  reason  for 
supposing  that  in  feeling  and  willing,  except  in  so  far 
as  they  are  influenced  by  the  higher  knowing,  man  is 
superior  to  the  beasts  of  the  field.  Indeed,  he  *is 
obviously  inferior  to  some  of  them  in  so  far  as  the 
feelings  depend  upon  the  senses,  for  their  senses  are 
much  more  acute  than  his.  But  in  man  thought,  in  a 
systematic,  scientific,  and  philosophic  form,  is  the  out- 
come of  sense  experiences. 

What  we  have  now  to  do  is  to  trace  the  general 
development  of  ideas,  as  such,  and  to  discover  what  are 


THE   DEVELOPMENT   OF  IDEAS  277 

the  elements  of  which  they  are  composed.  From  the 
results  thus  obtained  we  shall  be  able  to  throw  some 
further  light  on  educational  principles. 

General  Development  of  Ideas — ^We  have  already  dealt 
with  this  topic  in  connection  with  the  general  mental 
development,  and  it  only  remains  to  briefly  point  out 
the  special  elements  with  which  we  are  now  concerned. 
It  is  the  development  of  knowing,  from  a  particular 
point  of  view,  that  we  have  to  consider. 

The  beginnings  of  ideas  have  necessarily  the  same 
starting-point  as  those  of  knowing,  viz.,  the  earliest 
experiences  of  life.  Sensations  and  feelings  are  the 
first  sources  of  knowledge,  and,  therefore,  from  them 
come  the  first  elements  and  forms  of  ideas. 

That  there  is  a  marking  ofiP,  or  knowing,  of  one 
sensation  from  another,  even  by  the  infant,  is  shown  by 
its  crowing  and  crying.  Similar  evidence  is  given  of 
its  realisation  of  degrees  of  quantity  in  its  pleasures 
and  pains.  Later  on  it  learns  to  distinguish  one  kind 
of  sensation  from  another,  and  uses  its  eyes,  hands,  ears, 
or  mouth ;  subsequently  it  shows  a  preference  for  certain 
kinds,  according  to  the  feelings  produced. 

This  taking  account  of  the  quality,  quantity,  and 
kind  of  sensations  and  feelings  is  the  first  element  of 
ideas,  and  upon  it  is  based  all  the  after-development. 
It  can  hardly  be  said  to  be  an  idea,  except  in  an  implicit 
sense,  at  this  stage,  for  the  predominant  feature  in  the 
experience  is  the  feeling  element. 

After  a  suflScient  number  of  experiences  have 
occurred,  the  mind  not  only  takes  account  of  its  own 
general  condition  of  pleasure  or  pain,  but  it  begins  to 


278  EDUCATION 

give  an  outer  reference  to  the  inner  conditions.  For 
example,  the  child  who  is  pleased  with  the  colour  of  a 
toy  learns  to  associate  the  feeling  with  the  object,  and 
finds  a  way  of  demanding  the  presence  of  the  toy ;  or, 
if  it  is  pained  by  too  hot  food,  it  connects  the  pain  with 
the  substance  with  which  it  is  being  fed,  and  thrusts  it 
away  from  its  mouth. 

This  assumes  that  the  marking  off  of  things  in  space, 
through  their  colour  outlines  and  the  touch  experiences 
connected  with  them,  has  already  taken  place.  The 
beginning  of  such  a  marking  off  is  doubtless  due  almost 
wholly  to  colour  differences,  but  the  hands  soon  join 
with  the  eyes  in  giving  greater  definiteness  and  precision 
to  the  process;  and  the  other  senses  stimulate  their 
activity.  If  a  sweet  is  put  into  the  mouth  of  a  child, 
without  its  having  seen  it,  it  will  be  likely  to  take  it 
out  and  look  at  it. 

From  this  starting-point  of  a  higher  stage  of  knowing, 
and  nearer  approach  to  ideas,  the  mind  goes  on  to  the 
association  of  many  different  sensations  and  kinds  of 
sensations  —  and  feelings  —  with  the  same  physical 
object.  The  object  is  then  thought  of  as  a  whole  with 
many  details.  Its  parts,  powers,  actions,  and  functions, 
are  all  included,  in  a  practical  and  concrete  sense,  as 
time  goes  on.  The  whole  world  of  the  child's  immediate 
surroundings  is  thus  dealt  with,  and  so  divided  up  into 
a  multitude  of  distinct  and  significant  objects. 

Since  each  of  these  details  implies  a  judgment,  it 
would  appear  that  we  now  have  a  group  of  related  judg- 
ments, which  make  an  idea.  But  we  have  not  yet 
arrived  at  the  highest  kind  of  ideas,  inasmuch  as  we 


THE  DEVELOPMENT   OF   IDEAS  279 

limit  this  term  to  a  purely  rational  complex.  In  the 
above,  the  sensations  and  judgments  occar  together, 
and  the  latter  are  never  absent  from  the  former.  Hence 
the  object  itself  must  always  be  present,  in  the  sense 
of  acting  upon  the  senses,  so  as  to  cause  the  judg- 
ments to  come  together  in  the  mind.  For  this  reason 
we  say  that  we  have  only,  as  yet,  arrived  at  practical 
ideas. 

When  a  physical  object  is  fairly  familiar  to  us  we  are 
able  to  call  up  in  the  mind  a  purely  mental  picture  of 
it,  even  after  the  thing  itself  has  ceased  to  exist.  These 
images  are,  like  the  percepts  which  they  represent,  in- 
dividual things  at  first.  But  whilst  percepts  always 
remain  individual  so  far  as  they  themselves  are  con- 
cerned, images  become  general,  in  the  course  of  time. 

This  is  brought  about  by  the  association  of  like  images 
in  such  a  way  that,  so  to  put  it,  a  minimum  amount  of 
necessary  detail  is  left  for  the  purpose  of  suggesting  the 
right  kind  of  object.  It  is  as  though  an  artist  were  to 
make  fairly  full  sketches  of  particular  dogs,  and  then, 
as  he  came  to  compare  them  with  one  another  and  with 
sketches  of  other  individual  dogs,  to  erase  all  that  was 
peculiar  to  each  of  them,  until  he  had  left  only  those 
quite  general  details  of  form — ^the  element  of  exact  size, 
being  neglected — which  were  necessary  to  show  that 
they  were  sketches  of  dogs,  and  not  of  cats,  or  other 
animals. 

An  image  of  this  kind,  when  once  formed,  is  perfectly 
general  in  its  reference,  and  is,  therefore,  called  a  generic 
image.  It  constitutes  a  most  significant  advance  in  men- 
tal life,  for  it  bridges  over  the  movement  of  thought 


280  EDUCATION 

fn)m  particular  things  to  general  ideas.  Percepts,  how- 
ever numerous,  never  in  themselves  make  the  general 
elements  in  things  obvious. 

A  word  or  two  is  necessary  as  to  the  scientific  and 
popular  use  of  the  word  imagine.  In  the  strictly  psycho- 
logical sense,  we  can  only  imagine,  i.e.,  produce,  or 
reproduce,  a  mental  image  of  some  physical  object  of 
which  we  have  had  a  percept,  or  percepts.  Whilst  in 
popular  language  the  word  is  used  in  this  scientific 
sense,  it  is  also  use  as  meaning  suppose,  believe,  and 
conceive,  as  in  the  sentences :  Imagine  such  a  thing 
happening ;  I  cannot  imagine  that  it  is  true ;  Can  you 
imagine  the  reality  of  it  ? 

Images  are  reproduced,  or  re-presented  like  other 
remembered  mental  results.  They  are  also  associated 
and  combined  into  new  and  unexperienced  complexes. 
Thus  it  is  quite  easy  for  us  to  imagine  what  a  man 
would  look  like  whose  head  grew  under  one  of  his  arras, 
or  to  imagine  the  appearance  of  a  satyr  from  a  written 
description.  Similarly,  mental  pictures  of  landscapes, 
of  the  concrete  details  of  incidents,  and  the  like,  can  be 
constructed  by  the  mind  itself,  so  far  as  it  has  had  the 
necessary  elements  supplied  by  previous  experiences. 
This  is  called  constructive  imagination. 

After  a  somewhat  extensive  knowledge  of  the  mental 
impressions  which  objects  and  their  details  produce  has 
been  obtained,  the  mind  comes  to  think  of  the  mental 
effects  of  these  impressions  apart  from  their  connection 
with  soch-and-such  objects,  that  is,  solely  as  mental 
wholes,  and,  therefore,  things  in  themselves.  They  are 
then  regarded  as  things  which  are  possessed  by  certain 


THE  DEVELOPMENT   OF  IDEAS  281 

objects,  and  which  could  be  possessed  by  an  unlimited 
number  of  objects.  Thus,  instead  of  thinking  of  indivi- 
dual things  as  being  strong,  large,  hard,  thick,  sweet, 
heavy,  and  so  on,  we  think  of  them  as  having  strength, 
largeness,  hardness,  thickness,  sweetness,  and  heaviness. 
We  say  that  they  have  these  qualities,  and  we  think 
about  qualities  as  though  they  were  distinct  things 
possessed  by  an  object,  whereas  they  are  nothing  more 
than  the  mental  results  produced  by  the  different 
influences  which  objects  exert  upon  us. 

Thus  we  think  of  apples  as  having  redness,  brown- 
ness,  greenness,  hardness,  thickness,  flavour,  sweetness, 
usefulness,  and  wholesomeness.  And  all  these  thoughts 
can  be  together  in  the  mind  without  any  of  the  sensa- 
tions upon  which  they  are  based  actually  taking  place 
at  the  same  time.  Now,  therefore,  we  have  a  purely 
rational  complex  which  represents  our  experience,  but 
which  is  otherwise  independent  of  it ;  for  we  regard  it 
in  a  way  in  which  we  cannot  regard  the  apple  itself — 
we  should  not  have  an  apple,  if  we  separated  its 
sweetness,  hardness,  and  so  on  from  each  other — and 
we  can  deal  with  it  wholly  from  the  mental  point  of 
view,  for  we  can  compare  the  mental  details  with 
each  other,  and  the  whole  to  other  wholes,  without 
reference  to  the  physical  objects.  This,  therefore,  is 
the  purely  abstract,  or  highest  kind  of,  idea. 

Out  of  abstract  ideas  arise  all  our  sciences  and  philo- 
sophies. Prom  the  pure  thought  elements  of  experience 
we  derive  other  and  higher  thoughts,  and  build  these 
into  systems  of  thought.  These  are  the  highest,  and 
purely  rational,  values  of  our  experiences,  and  can  only 


282  EDUCATION 

come  directly  from  that  which  is  itself  wholly  mental. 
Ideas  are  themselves  the  most  general  elements  of 
knowledge,  for  they  have  an  infinite  applicability.  An 
infinite  number  of  things  have  size,  shape,  weight,  and 
so  on.  Sciences  and  philosophies  involve  the  most 
generalised  forms  of  ideas. 

We  may  illustrate  these  stages  by  taking  an  instance 
in  which  the  same  phenomenon  is  presented  to  difierent 
classes  of  individuals.  Let  us  take  an  audience  which 
is  listening  to  a  lecture  on  psychology.  If  some  children 
in  arms  have  the  misfortune  to  be  present,  the  lecture 
can  be  nothing  more  than  an  experience  of  the  noise 
made  by  the  speaker's  voice,  and  possibly  by  other 
voices:  of  the  effects  of  the  lights,  if  it  be  in  the 
evening:  of  the  comfortable,  or  otherwise,  feelings 
produced  by  the  temperature  of  the  room :  and  some 
vague  impressions  of  the  general  surroundings. 

Girls  and  boys,  and  uneducated  adults,  who  were 
present,  would  attach  clear  and  definite  meanings  to 
such  experiences ;  and  would,  besides,  understand  many 
of  the  words,  and,  possibly,  some  of  the  sentences  used 
by  the  lecturer,  in  so  far  as  they  applied  to  concrete 
things.  They  would  understand  something  of  the  sig- 
nificance of  the  speaker's  gesture,  and  recognise,  more 
or  less  clearly,  their  effects  upon  the  listeners.  Any 
practical  illustrations  or  amusing  anecdotes  would  be 
relished  by  them.  But,  otherwise,  the  lecture  would 
have  very  little,  if  any,  significance  for  them. 

To  the  minds  capable  of  scientific  thought,  the  lecture 
would  mean  the  setting  forth  of  ideas  which  form  a  part 
of  an  organised  body  of  knowledge.     And,  though  the 


THE   DEVELOPMENT   OF  IDEAS  283 

sensations  experienced  by  the  previous  classes  would 
be  necessary  as  means  of  communication  between 
tbem  and  the  lecturer,  these  would  be  almost  entirely 
forgotten  in  the  mental  activity  aroused  by  the  ideas 
as  such.  If  they  were  really  following  the  lecture  they 
would  be  likely  to  think  of  very  few  concrete  things  at 
all,  but  would,  under  the  guidance  of  the  speaker,  be 
engaged  in  observing,  analysing,  and  synthesising  ideas 
about  ideas. 

Similarly,  to  take  another  example,  a  concrete  object, 
such  as  a  windmill,  has  dififerent  meanings  for  different 
capacities.  To  the  little  child  it  is,  from'  the  outside, 
simply  something  which  is  marked  off  in  the  general 
colour  world,  and  which  has  a  peculiar  effect  upon  the 
sight  if  the  sails  are  moving.  From  the  inside,  it  will 
mean  a  particular  kind  of  rumbling  noise,  and  the  effects 
of  nnequal  distribution  of  light  and  air. 

For  older  children  and  uneducated  adults,  who  are 
allowed  to  become  familiar  with  the  windmill,  the  above 
impressions  will  have  definite  significance,  and  will  very 
distiactly  mark  off  the  object  as  a  whole  from  other 
objects.  They  will  be  able  to  decide  at  once,  and 
without  mistake  as  a  rule,  whether  a  given  object  is  or 
is  not  a  windmill.  Then  they  will  give  definite  meanings 
in  a  practical  sense  to  the  various  parts,  powers,  and 
actions  of  the  mill ;  and  will  be  able  to  mark  off  the 
different  details  from  each  other,  in  a  similar  manner 
to  that  in  which  they  mark  off  the  whole  from  other 
wholes.  This  kind  of  knowledge  will  be  made  much 
more  complete  and  clear  if  a  dissectible  model  can  be 
made  use  of.     But   everything  so   known   is   directly 


284  EDUCATION 

sense-given,  for  it  is  only  as  the  learner  sees,  feels, 
hears,  and  judges,  in  direct  connection  with  each  con- 
crete detail,  that  such  knowledge  is  obtained. 

In  the  case  of  those  whose  minds  have  reached  the 
"stage  of  pure  ideas,  there  will  be  all  the  previously 
mentioned  details,  but  with  a  higher  significance.  The 
ideas  of  unity,  purpose,  design,  power,  effectiveness, 
usefulness,  dependence  (on  man  and  wind),  destructi- 
bility,  finiteness,  function,  and  so  on,  will  be  connected 
with  the  mill,  and  it  will  possibly  be  more  often 
thought  of  in  such  relations  than  merely  as  a  physical 
machinery.  Again,  the  relation  of  the  various  parts 
to  each  other,  with  regard  to  support  and  motion,  will 
lead  to  some  of  those  ideas  which,  when  built  up  into 
a  system,  we  call  the  principles  of  mechanics. 

The  Elements  of  Ideas. — From  the  above  we  see  that 
there  are  three  characteristic  conditions,  or  stages,  in 
the  ordinary  development  of  an  idea.  Fii-st  there  must 
be  that  which  can,  and  does,  affect  the  senses,  and  is 
taken  account  of  by  the  mind.  This  is  known  as  a 
presentation — which  has  been  already  discussed  in  the 
second  chapter. 

As  we  shall  see  later  on,  ideas  themselves  give  rise 
to  other  ideas,  without  any  special  action  of  the  senses 
at  the  time ;  but  the  original  source  of  all  ideas  is  the 
activities  of  the  senses.  The  receiving  and  consciously 
realising  of  sensations  is  the  beginning  of  mental  life, 
and  the  origin  of  the  most  purely  rational  elements  of 
the  highest  intellectual  life. 

Next  there  is  the  giving  of  a  definite  mental  meaning, 
and  an  external  reference  to  separate  presentations,  or 


THE   DEVELOPMENT   OP  IDEAS  285 

groups  of  presentations,  in  addition  to  simply  realising 
them.  The  mental-with-physical  result  of  this  is  termed 
a  percept.  i 

Finally,  we  have  the  stage  when  only  the  purely 
rational  results  of  the  foregoing  are  taken  account  of, 
for  the  time  being.  When  we  are  able  thus  to  look 
into  the  mind  itself  for  our  knowledge  of  what  a  thing 
means  to  us,  we  say  that  we  have  a  purely  rational 
conception  of  it.  Hence  we  name  such  a  rational  com- 
plex a  concept. 

We  will  now  consider  each  of  these  elements  in 
greater  detail.  In  doing  this  it  will  be  necessary  to 
bear  in  mind  that,  as  in  all  mental  phenomena,  each  of 
them  involves  the  others  to  a  greater  or  lesser  degree. 
The  presentation  contains  the  substance  of  the  percept 
and  the  germs  of  the  concept ;  the  percept  is  an  exten- 
sion of  the  presentation  and  supplies  the  materials  for 
the  concept ;  and  the  concept  is  derived  from  the  percept 
and  presentation.  Also,  that  all  three  elements  are 
constantly  developing  simultaneously,  though  in  different 
proportions.  It  is  the  explicit  recognition,  and  making 
conscious  use  of  the  different  elements  which  form  the 
principal  features  of  progress. 

I.  Presentations. — A  clearer  idea  of  what  a  presentation 
involves  may  be  obtained  from  the  analysis  of  the  details 
involved.  This  has  been  dealt  with  in  the  second 
chapter. 

So  far  as  a  presentation,  as  such,  is  concerned,  there 
need  not,  and  in  the  first  instance  cannot,  be  anything 
more  than  a  vague  realisation  of  something  having 
happened  to  the  mental  life  as  a  whole.     There  is  a 


286  EDQCATION 

kind  of  general  estimate  as  to  whether  this  is  a  com- 
fortable or  nncomfortable  matter,  but  no  further  dis- 
crimination of  its  particular  character  and  meaning  in 
reference  to  the  self  and  other  things.  When  these  occur 
a  percept  is  formed. 

It  is  necessary  that  what  is  technically  known  as  the 
impression  should  be  of  a  certain  intensity,  or  no  pre- 
sentation will  result  from  it.  The  truth  of  this  will  be 
recognised  when  one  reflects  that  if  every  stimulus 
which  is  acting  upon  the  whole  body  had  to  be  definitely 
responded  to  by  the  mind  there  would  be  mental  chaos ; 
for  there  are  doubtless  millions  of  stimuli  acting  upon 
an  individual  at  any  given  moment. 

Again,  this  intensity  must  vary  according  to  the 
general  condition  of  mind  and  body  at  the  time.  In 
cases  of  certain  bodily  disorders  a  very  slight  stimulus 
may  cause  very  violent  disturbance,  or  a  very  violent 
stimulus  may  cause  very  slight  response.  Similarly 
with  the  mind:  if  the  attention  is  already  fixed  and 
absorbed,  by  another  matter,  a  very  strong  impressioQ 
will  meet  with  little,  if  any,  response ;  whilst,  on  the 
other  hand,  if  the  attention  is  lively  and  vigorous,  but 
not  pre-occupied,  the  slightest  and  most  trivial  impres- 
sion may  receive  very  full  response. 

The  intensity  which  is  necessary  to  bring  an  impres- 
sion into  full  consciousness  is  technically  known  as 
the  liminal  intensity.  This  not  only  varies  with  the 
particular  condition  of  the  individual  at  the  moment, 
but  also  with  regard  to  different  periods  and  for  different 
classes  of  impressions.  Thus,  the  child,  as  a  rule,  re- 
quii^es  much  less  to  take  its  attention,  but  more  to  keep 


THE   DEVELOPMENT   OF   IDEAS  287 

it,  than  an  adult  or  even  a  youth.  Again,  the  same 
person  is  affected  more  by  stimuli  of  one  kind  th,an  of 
another,  e.g.,  a  botanist  would  very  definitely  notice  a 
variation  in  a  flower,  when  the  ordinary  man  would 
very  likely  not  notice  the  flower  at  all.  A  botanist, 
thus  easily  and  strongly  affected  by  a  plant,  might  be 
wholly  unsusceptible  to  the  ordinary  influences  of  the 
phenomena  of  physics,  in  a  scientific  sense.  A  shep- 
herd can  recognise  his  sheep  by  their  faces  as  readily  as 
he  can  his  personal  friends. 

If  a  stimulus  be  too  intense  there  is  no  proper  dis- 
crimination of  it,  but  only  a  painfully  violent  disturbance 
and  a  sense  of  shock.  The  mind  is  unable  to  adjust 
itself  to  the  proper  reception  of  the  impression,  and  a 
state  of  strain  and  fiiction  is  set  up ;  much  in  the  same 
way  as  when  the  wind  is  blowing  hard  into  our  open 
mouth  we  have  the  feelings  of  choking,  through  inability 
to  adjust  our  breathing  organs  to  such  an  excessive 
supply. 

Similarly,  when  we  try  very  hard  to  take  account  of 
impressions  which  have  not  a  liminal  intensity,  there 
is  a  painful  sense  of  mental  strain  and  failure.  This 
may  be  compared  to  the  results  of  trying  to  discern 
points  of  detail  which  the  eye  is  really  incapable  of 
seeing.  In  both  cases  it  is  the  inability  of  the  organism 
to  adjust  itself  to  the  stimulus  which  causes  the  effort 
to  produce  the  disturbance  and  pain. 

Both  over-intensity  and  under-in tensity  may  produce 
permanently  mischievous,  and  even  disastrous,  results. 
This  is  seen  in  cases  where  children  are  made  per- 
manently fearful,  or  even  driven   into  imbecility,  by 


288  EDUCATION 

having  the  emotion  of  fear  over-excited  by,  to  them, 
horrible  stories  about  the  bogey-man.  On  the  other 
hand,  an  individual  may  develop  a  cold  and  unsym- 
pathetic character,  through  not  having  had  his  feelings  of 
gratitude  and  affection  sufficiently  aroused  in  early  life. 

Another  very  important  feature  in  presentations  is 
the  relation  between  the  intensity  of  the  sensation  and 
the  stimulus.  It  is  found  by  experiments  that  when 
a  certain  sensation  is  being  experienced  it  is  necessary 
for  the  stimulus  to  be  doubled  before  there  is  a  definite 
consciousness  of  an  increase  in  the  intensity  of  the 
sensation.  If,  for  example,  a  pound  weight  is  resting 
upon  the  hand,  and  more  and  more  weight  is  gradually 
added,  it  is  not  until  the  total  amounts  to  two  pounds 
that  there  is  a  clear  consciousness  of  an  increase  of  sen- 
sation. Of  course,  this  assumes  that  the  eye  and  ear  are 
prevented  from  helping  the  judgment.  To  get  still 
another  conscious  recognition  of  an  increase  of  sensation 
the  weight  must  be  increased  to  four  pounds. 

This  fact  is  generally  expressed  by  saying  that:  to 
increase  the  sensation  in  arithmetical  progression,  we 
must  increase  the  stimulus  in  geometrical  progression. 
That  is,  if  the  progress  of  sensation  is  to  be  as  i,  2,  3, 
4,  5,  the  progress  of  stimulus  must  be  as  i,  2,  4,  8, 
16.  This  is  known  as  Weber's,  or  Fechner's  law, 
because  its  recognition  was  chiefly  due  to  the  investi- 
gations of  Weber,  and  Fechner.  But  it  is  an  analogy 
rather  than  a  law,  for  it  is  hardly  true  to  say  that  the 
sensation  increases  in  arithmetical  progression.  The 
mind  is  conscious  of  "  more,"  not  of  '*  one  unit  more," 
sensation. 


THE   DEVELOPMENT   OF  IDEAS  289 

A  presentation  may  be  simple  or  complex.  It  may 
be  simple,  in  that  it  is  a  single  impression  conveyed 
throTjgh  one  of  the  senses,  e.g.,  a  single  colour  or  a 
single  sound,  or  a  succession  of  such.  A  complex 
presentation  may  arise  from  several  impressions  coming 
through  the  same  sense,  or  through  different  senses,  at 
one  time,  as  when  a  combination  of  colours  is  seen,  or 
when  we  see  the  performers  in  an  orchestra,  hear  the 
music,  and  feel  the  vibrations  caused  by  the  double- 


We  may  define  a  presentation  as :  anything  which  is 
attended  to  by  the  mind.  This  definition  is  designedly 
wider  than  much  of  the  foregoing  discussion  suggests. 
We  must  make  it  thus  wide,  because  when  the  mind 
has  reached  a  reflective  stage,  and  is,  therefore,  able 
to  think  about  its  own  thoughts,  these  become  matters 
which  are  dealt  with  in  a  manner  similar  to  that  in 
which  we  deal  with  sense-presentations.  Were  it  not 
for  the  fjict  that  we  are  able  to  do  this,  we  could  not 
have  such  a  science  as  psychology.  Purely  mental 
presentations  imply  that  introspective,  reflective,  self- 
consciousness  which  makes  the  knowledge  of  the  mind 
possible. 

The  whole  universe  of  mind  and  matter  may  be 
looked  upon  as  one  vast  presentation,  made  up  of  a 
series  of  related  presentations,  which  the  mind,  in  its 
growth  and  development,  partly  creates,  absorbs,  and 
reflects.  In  a  more  restricted  sense,  the  world '  of  ex- 
perience is  our  presentation  universe.  This  has  been 
termed  the  presentation  continuum  by  Dr.  James  Ward, 
because  of  its  continuity  and  unity.     From  it  smaller 

T 


290  EDUCATION 

systems,  or  continua,  such  as  the  visual,  aural,  tactual, 
ideational,  emotional,  and  so  on,  are  evolved  as  life 
goes  on;  but  these  are  always  inter-dependent  upon, 
and  inter-related  with,  the  great  unity  of  life  and 
thought. 

2.  Percepts. — Prom  what  has  already  been  said  it 
will  be  seen  that  percepts  involve  what  we  have  spoken  of 
as  the  knowledge  of  the  concrete  and  practical  elements 
of  things,  and  of  their  parts,  powers,  and  actions.  To 
put  the  matter  in  general  terms,  we  may  say  that  the 
percept  involves  the  mental  realisation  of  the  fact  that 
certain  complexes  of  impressions  express  the  existence 
and  nature  of  particular  things,  or  physical  objects,  as 
we  usually  name  them. 

We  will  proceed  to  investigate  more  closely  the  nature 
of  a  percept.  It  will  be  necessary  throughout  the 
following  discussions  to  guard  ourselves  against  con- 
fusing the  psychological  use  of  the  word  percept  with 
some  of  the  ordinary  uses  of  the  word  perceive.  In 
ordinary  speech  we  meet  with  such  a  sentence  as: 
You  will  perceive  the  truth  of  the  argument.  Now, 
there  can  be  no  psychological  percept  referred  to  in 
such  a  sentence,  for  there  is  no  concrete  object  involved. 
Truth  and  argument  are  both  abstract  ideas.  The 
word  perceive  has  here  the  meaning  of  understand, 
apprehend,  or  grasp.  But  in  such  a  sentence  as: 
You  did  not,  perhaps,  perceive  the  man  place  his  hand 
under  the  cloth,  the  word  is  used  in  a  strictly  psycho- 
logical sense,  and  means :  You  did  not,  perhaps,  have 
a  percept  of  the  man  placing  his  hand  under  the  cloth. 

We  have  already  pointed  out  that  in  the  percept  there 


THE   DEVELOPMENT   OF   IDEAS  291 

is  a  definite  significance  given  to  sense-impressions. 
There  is  the  recognising  that  certain  colour  sensations 
are  like  to  each  other,  but  unlike  others  which  are 
also  like  to  each  other.  Thus  a  certain  colour  will 
appear  to  the  mind  as  such-and-such  an  one,  that  is, 
when  language  is  known,  we  say  that  it  is  white,  black, 
red,  or  blue.  And,  similarly,  all  other  sensations  will 
have  a  definite  character  or  meaning. 

This  recognising  and  classifying  of  sense-presenta- 
tions is  known  as  the  element  of  assimilation  in  percepts. 
Assimilation  here,  as  always,  involves  its  correlative — 
discrimination — for  wherever  there  is  a  marking  out  as 
to  likeness,  there  must  be  a  marking  off  as  to  unlike- 
ness.  This  applies  equally  to  ideational,  emotional,  and 
other  presentations. 

Assimilation  implies  the  retention  and  re-presentation 
of  mental  effects,  for  there  could  be  no  re-cognition 
unless  previous  cognitions,  however  vague,  are  repre- 
sented along  with  the  presentation.  If  we  assume 
that  this  takes  place  automatically,  from  the  nature  of 
mind  itself,  and  that  it  is  followed  by  what  Dr. 
Bain  calls  the  *'  shock  of  agreement,"  and  "  flash  of 
identity  in  diversity,"  then  assimilation  and  discrimin- 
ation are  accounted  for. 

From  the  standpoint  of  later  knowledge,  we  may  say 
that  assimilation  is  the  result  of  the  spontaneous  activity 
of  memory  and  association.  As  has  been  frequently 
insisted,  the  meaning  of  a  presentation  is  largely  due  to 
the  representative  elements,  which  the  mind  itself 
supplies  for  purposes  of  interpretation  and  assimi- 
lation. 


292  EDUCATION 

Besides  this  internal  mental  assimilation  of  the  sense- 
presentation,  there  is  the  giving  it  an  external  refer- 
ence. Probably  the  first  element  in  this  external  refer- 
ence is  the  clear  recognition  that  the  impression,  or 
impressions,  come  through  a  certain  sense.  The  young 
child  doubtless  learns  that  colour  sensations  come 
through  the  eyes,  because  of  what  happens  when  it 
closes  its  eyes,  and  because  of  the  local  disturbance, 
which  causes  blinking  and  shutting  of  the  eyes,  when 
there  is  a  dazzling  light. 

"  It  is  by  the  daily  renewed  conjunctions  of  simple 
sense-experiences,  and  more  particularly  those  of  sight 
and  touch,  that  the  little  learner  comes  to  refer  its 
impressions  to  objects.  By  continually  looking  at  the 
objects  handled,  the  usual  perception  of  direction 
becomes  perfected,  as  also  that  of  distance    within 

certain  limits A  child  known  to  the  present 

writer  was  first  seen  to  stretch  out  his  hand  to  an  object 
when  two  and  a  half  months  old.  The  hand  misses  the 
exact  point  at  first,  passing  beside  it,  but  practice  gives 
precision  to  the  movement.  The  same  child  at  six 
months  knew  when  an  object  was  within  reach.  If  a 
biscuit  or  other  object  was  held  out  of  his  reach,  he 
made  no  movement,  but  as  soon  as  it  was  brought 
within  his  reach  he  instantly  put  out  his  hand  to  take 
it."     (Sully.) 

Then  a  still  more  remote  external  reference  is  given 
to  sensations.  Thus  colours  are  regarded  as  spread 
over  a  certain  amount  of  space,  sounds  as  coming 
from  a  certain  direction,  tastes  as  being  connected  with 
certain  objects,  and  so  on. 


THE   DEVELOPMENT   OF  IDEAS  293 

SucIl  references  of  impressions  to  that  which  is  ex- 
ternal to  the  mind  itself  is  termed  the  element  of 
localisation  in  percepts. 

Localisation  involves  the  idea  of  space,  the  origin  of 
which  we  cannot  go  into  now.  We  may  say  in  general 
terms  that,  to  obtain  correct  space  elements  in  a 
percept,  we  must  have  explored  an  object  by  means 
of  the  sense  of  touch  combined  with  movements.  The 
tactual  sensations  must  be  continuous  until  the  limits 
of  the  object  are  reached,  whether  the  movement 
is  forwards  or  backwards.  Also  the  usual  sensations 
must  be  unbroken  during  the  sweep  of  the  eye  over  the 
object 

Both  of  these  series  must  be  simultaneously  presented 
to  the  mind,  and  there  must  be  a  sense  of  more  or  less 
of  what  we  may  call  bigness  or  massiveness  about  the 
total — in  the  sense  that  the  sight  of  a  huge  elephant 
impresses  one  in  a  different  sense  from  that  of  a  mina- 
ture  model  of  it,  though  the  extent  of  the  retinal  im- 
pression may  be  the  same  in  each  case.  This  is  tech- 
nically known  as  the  extensity  of  the  sensation. 

But  this  localisation  of  a  percept  involves  much  more 
than  vague  references  to  that  which  is  not  mind.^  There 
is  a  definite  recognition  of  a  something  underlying  the 
sensation,  or  sense-impression,  itself,  and  which  is  the 
original  source  from  whence  it  arises.  This  we  call  con- 
crete substance ;  and  we  regard  it  as  having  different 
forms,  each  having  distinct  and  separate  units,  and 
classes  of  such  units,  with  their  sub-classes.  In  other 
words,  there  are  organic  and  inorganic  forms  of  matter, 
with  all  their  divisions  and  sub-divisious  of  forms. 


294  EDUCATION 

Each  distinct  and  separate  unit  we  call  a  thing ;  and 
this  element  of  the  realisation  of  a  special  and  separate 
source  of  the  activities  which  gives  rise  to  sense-im- 
pressions we  ca    the  intuition  of  things. 

Since  each  part  of  a  percept  is  the  outcome  of  the 
re-action  of  the  mind,  according  to  its  own  fundamental 
nature,  to  the  action  of  external  influences,  we  can 
only  point  out  the  conditions  and  details  involved.  We 
cannot  give  any  other  reason  for  the  nature  of  the 
result  than  to  say  that  it  appears  to  be  the  necessary 
effect  of  the  re-action  of  such  an  organism  as  mind  to 
the  special  influences  which  act  upon  it. 

The  grouping  of  the  details  of  a  percept,  through  the 
recognition  of  their  concrete  relations  to  each  other,  in- 
volves a  series  of  practical  judgments,  and  is,  therefore, 
in  this  respect,  a  mediate,  and  not  an  immediate 
product.  The  full  meaning  of  this  will  appear  as  we 
proceed. 

The  intuition  of  things  involves  several  essential 
elements.  First  and  foremost  is  the  realisation  of  the 
actuality  or  reality  of  what  we  call,  the  thing.  This 
consists  in  the  inevitable  conviction,  under  normal 
conditions,  that  there  is  that  of  which  the  senses  are 
taking  account,  and  which  they  cannot  escape  taking 
account  of,  unless  prevented  by  something  which  inter- 
feres with  the  ordinary  relation  between  their  own 
activities  and  those  of  an  external  object. 

There  is  that  which  is  recognised  as  a  fundamental 
difference  between  a  sense-presentation  and  a  mental 
representation.  The  latter  is,  more  or  less,  under  the 
control  of  the  will,  both  as  to  time  and  form,  while 


THE   DEVELOPMENT   OF   IDEAS  295 

the  form  can,  more  or  less,  compel  the  will  as  to  these. 
Thus  we  can  think  of  a  being,  half  man  and  half 
horse,  when  we  will,  but  we  are  compelled  to  have  the 
proper  percept  of  a  horse,  if  such  an  animal  is  before 
us,  under  normal  conditions.  It  is  the  mind  which 
takes  account  of  qualities,  but  there  is  some  concrete 
thing  which  possesses  that  which  gives  rise  to  the 
ideas. 

Next  there  is  the  element  of  resistibility  in  a  concrete 
or  physical  thing.  Experience  teaches  us  that  there 
is  what  we  call  free  space,  in  which  our  limbs  can  move 
without  hindrance  ;  but  where  there  is  what  we  know 
as  a  physical  object,  there  our  movements  are  more  or 
less  retarded,  or  entirely  stopped.  This  leads  us  to 
the  idea  that  there  is  something  which  is  a  thing  in 
itself,  or  entity,  in  the  same  sense  that  our  body  is 
known  to  us  as  a  kind  of  physical  self. 

Then  there  is  also  the  element  of  unity  and  com- 
plexity. As  has  been  pointed  out,  certain  sounds, 
sights,  smells,  tastes,  and  muscular  sensations,  are  all 
referred  to  one  objective  centre,  as  in  the  case  of  an 
orange.  The  object,  as  a  whole,  is  regarded  as  made 
up  of  those  constituents  which  respectively  give  rise  to 
the  diflFerent  sense-impressions.  Moreover,  such  a  com- 
plex is,  as  a  rule,  regarded  as  a  separate  and  self-con- 
tained whole,  whatever  may  be  its  relations  to  other 
wholes.  Its  extent,  as  determined  by  the  limits  of  its 
special  form  of  resistibility,  has  limits  in  space,  and  it 
is  thus  physically  marked  off  as  a  unit. 

Another  element  is  that  of  permanence  or  temporal 
continuity.     The  unit  has  such  a  unity  that  it  can,  as  a 


296  EDUCATION 

rule,  change  its  position  without  being  otherwise 
materially  altered,  or,  at  any  rate,  not  so  changed  as  to 
spoil  its  identity,  or  prevent  its  recognition  as  such- 
and-such  a  specimen  of  a  certain  class.  It  has  a  physi- 
cal individuality  which  is,  as  a  whole,  maintained  in 
spite  of  many  changes  of  detail.  It  is  not  as  though 
each  man  were  simply  something  more  of  man  as  a 
race;  but  he  is  a  thing  in  itself,  which  has  its  own 
permanent  individuality,  though  belonging  to  a  special 
class  of  objects. 

Finally,  there  is  the  element  of  substantiality  in  the 
intuition  of  things.  This  really  sums  up,  in  a  sort  of 
final  expression,  all  the  elements.  It  more  especially 
suggests  the  space-occupying  attribute.  This  is  a  more 
or  less  monopolising  and  exclusive  element.  Where 
the  actual  substance  is,  there,  so  far  as  we  know, 
nothing  else  can  be.  N!o  substance  is  known  to  be 
absolutely  solid,  but  all  seem  to  have  more  or  less 
extensive  interstices  between  the  final  units  of  which 
they  are  composed.  Pieces  of  solid  steel  and  sponge 
are  suggestive  of  the  more  or  less  monopolising  of  space 
by  substance.  This  it  is  which  forms  the  basis  of  our 
idea  of  a  physical  object. 

Of  course  each  of  these  elements  does  not  come  to  us 
consecutively,  or  even  separately  ;  and  they  are,  in  the 
end,  inseparably  united  in  the  total  percept.  Such  a 
separation  as  here  made  is  a  purely  rational  analysis 
of  the  meaning  and  significance  of  a  percept.  The 
separate  elements  of  the  percept,  as  such,  are  direct 
and  immediate  forms  of  cognition.  The  whole 
becomes  more  and  more  full  of  content  as  experience 


THE    DEVELOPMENT   OF   IDEAS  297 

and  knowledge  widen  and  deepen ;  but  at  any  given 
moment  it  is  a  distinct  aod  definite  whole. 

A  percept,  or  concrete  idea,  may  be  defined  as  an 
intelligible  synthesis  of  impressions.  The  word  in- 
telligible must  here  be  understood  to  mean :  by  the 
intelligence,  for  the  intelligence.  It  should  be  care- 
fully noted  that  a  percept  is  not  defined  as  a 
synthesis  of  presentations,  for  this  would  include 
purely  intellectual  presentations,  which  are  beyond  the 
sphere  of  percepts. 

Great  care  must  be  taken  not  to  confuse  actual 
percepts  with  those  judgments  which  previous  ex- 
periences and  judgments  cause  us  to  instinctively  base 
upon  the  percepts.  For  example,  we  do  not  perceive, 
in  the  strictly  psychological  sense,  the  distance  of  an 
object  from  us.  There  is  nothing  in  a  ray  of  light 
itself  to  tell  us  whether  it  has  been  reflected  from  an 
object  an  inch  away  or  a  million  of  miles  away. 

What  really  happens  is  this :  because  of  the  mus- 
cular sensations  which  are  involved  in  a  certain 
visual  experience,  we  judge — after  mentally  comparing 
the  present  sensations  with  past  ones  which  are  as- 
sociated with  the  experiences  attending  a  walk  to  the 
object  seen — ^that  if  we  were  to  walk  to  the  object 
the  time  and  energy  required  would  be  such-and-such, 
and  we,  therefore,  say  that  the  object  seen  is  far  away 
or  near. 

The  same  kind  of  criticism  applies  to  some  judgments 
based  upon  aural,  tactual,  and  muscular  experiences. 
We  cannot  perceive  that  a  tune  is  melodious,  bright, 
or  bold,  by  looking  at  the  score  :  that    an  object   is 


298  EDUCATION 

heavy,  hard,  or  damp,  by  seeing  it:  or  that  an 
apple  is  ripe,  sweet,  soft,  or  juicy,  from  a  sight  of 
it. 

As  an  illustration  of  the  elements  in  a  percept  we 
may  take  the  case  of  a  book.  The  impressions  which 
a  book  gives  rise  to  are  recognised,  when  re-acted  upon 
by  consciousness,  as  such-and-such  sensations,  which 
we  afterwards  learn  to  call  visual,  tactual,  and  mus- 
cular sensations.  This  is  assimilation,  and  justifies  us 
in  saying  that  a  certain  object  is  a  book,  and  not  a 
box,  or  a  leather  bag.  If  challenged,  we  should  assert 
that  certain  of  these  sensations  come  through  the  eye, 
others  through  the  skin,  and  muscles ;  and  also  that 
they  were  due  to  a  certain  something  which  occupied  a 
certain  definitely  limited  space  area.  This  is  localisation, 
and  is  implied  in  saying :  the  object  in  such-and-such 
a  position  is  a  book. 

Then  there  is  the  conviction  that  no  person,  in  a 
normal  state,  could  fail  to  be  aware  of  this  object, 
under  proper  conditions,  because  it  is  such  that  it 
necessarily  affects  the  senses  in  various  ways,  and  has 
a  permanent  individuality.  This  is  the  intuition  of 
the  thing,  and  implies  that  we  regard  the  book  as  a 
kind  of  physical  self,  more  or  less  of  the  nature  of  our 
own  body-self.  It  has  a  separate  existence,  and  is, 
therefore  an  entity  or  thing  in  itself. 

Prom  what  has  been  said,  it  will  be  seen  that  all 
percepts  are  practical  judgments,  and  that  many  of 
them  are  very  complex  judgments.  But  all  the 
judgments  about  the  parts,  as  such,  are,  direct  and 
immediate,  or  intuitive  judgments.     If  they  were  not 


THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF   IDEAS  299 

SO,  judgment  in  a  higher  sense  could  not  exist,  for 
it  would  have  no  starting-point,  nor  material  to  deal 
with.  These  concrete  judgments  are  related  to  each 
other  in  systematic,  practical  forms — hence  the  arts — 
and  the  mental  processes  involved  constitute  what  is 
called  practical  reason.  Of  the  activities  involved  we 
shall  treat  more  fully  in  dealing  with  concepts.  It  is 
this  relating  of  the  parts  and  wholes  to  each  other 
which  constitutes  the  immediate,  or  more  or  less  ex- 
plicitly connected,  character  of  percepts. 

This  may  well  be  called  the  practical  reason.  Its 
most  striking  form  is  seen  in  those  inventions 
connected  with  mechanical  details  which  are  so  often 
made  by  artisans,  and  are  said  to  have  done  almost  as 
much  for  the  development  of  machinery  as  the  original 
designs.  Almost  every  intelligent  worker  is  constantly 
finding  out  little  ways  in  which  concrete  materials  are 
more  easily  and  efiEectively  controlled.  Workmen  have 
what  we  call  "  knacks  "  in  doing  their  work. 

All  such  involve  what  we  may  term  perceptual 
reasoning.  Direct  judgments  are  made  about  things, 
whilst,  and  because,  persons  are  handling  them.  There 
is  no  explicit  thinking  out  of  matters  by,  say,  a  brick- 
layer, as  is  the  case,  for  example,  with  an  architect 
in  his  office,  but  a  kind  of  almost  instinctive  realising 
that  such  and  such  materials,  in  a  certain  concrete 
relation,  will  lead  to  given  practical  results. 

Of  course  all  the  elements  of  experience-given  know- 
ledge, and  mental  ideas,  and  their  relations  are  implicit, 
and  may  later  on  become  explicit.  But,  at  the  time,  the 
individual  himself  regards  the  whole  matter  as  one  of 


300  EDUCATION 

doing,  and  not  of  thinking.  It  is  thus  that  the  arts 
precede  the  sciences.  And  in  this  way  the  .race  has 
done  great  things  in  the  way  of  action,  whilst  the  power 
of  abstract  thinking  has  been  small. 

These  remarks  on  perceptual  reasoning  should  be 
carefully  compared  with  what  was  said  about  the 
development  of  practical  knowing,  when  we  were 
dealing  with  the  development  of  feeling  and  knowing 
in  the  fourth  chapter. 

3.  Concepts. — ^The  movement  from  the  wholly  in- 
dividual and  particular  elements  of  thought,  as  found 
in  percepts,  to  the  perfectly  general  elements  which  are 
found  in  the  concept,  or  abstract  idea,  is  a  very  mo- 
mentous one.  It  is  the  basis  of  that  higher  self-con- 
sciousness, and  reflective  reason,  which  distinguish  man 
from  the  lower  animals.  If  this  step  were  not  taken, 
man  would  always  remain  in  the  sphere  of  the  empirical 
and  the  particular.  Instinct  would  be  the  only  or- 
ganising activity  of  thought,  and  life  would  be  limited 
to  a  cycle  of  more  or  less  advanced,  and  perhaps 
advancing,  habits. 

At  a  certain  point  in  his  development  the  human 
being  comes,  so  to  say,  face  to  face  with  his  own  mind. 
No  higher  progress  is  possible  unless  he  recognises  the 
fact  that  a  fundamental  element  in  his  experiences  is 
supplied  by  a  special  capacity  belonging  to  himself. 
He  must  grasp  the  truth  that  certain  elements  which 
he  has  hitherto  regarded  as  part  and  parcel  of  things 
themselves  exist,  in  a  sense,  only  in  his  own  mind.  In 
other  words,  it  is  necessary  that  he  should  realise  that 
what  we  call  the  qualities   of    things    have  separate 


THE  DEVELOPMENT   OF   IDEAS  301 

existence  only  in  bo  far  as"  they  are  purely  mental 
wholes. 

Now,  the  abstract,  as  such,  is  known  as  different  from 
the  concrete.  This  makes  possible  the  existence  of 
knowledge,  as  knowledge,  i.e.,  a  mental  store  of  truths, 
known  as  truths.  Of  course  this  is  realised,  at  first, 
only  in  a  very  simple  and  direct  sense,  and  not  in  any 
scientific  or  philosophic  manner.  The  individual  has 
simply  learnt  to  distinguish  between  his  impressions,  as 
such,  and  his  judgments  about  them.  He  can  separate 
the  latter  from  the  former,  and,  to  some  extent,  can 
still  further  investigate  the  nature  and  meaning  of 
them.  From  this  starting-point  there  stretches  out 
before  him  infinite  possibilities  of  rational  progress. 
Infinite,  for  him,  because  he  has  to  deal  with  a  universe 
of  infinite  detail  and  complexity  with  finite  powers  and 
a  limited  amount  of  time. 

Already  there  has  been  an  organising  of  knowledge 
and  actions  intx)  systems  for  practical  purposes — ^the 
arts.  Now  this  is  followed  by  that  deeper  insight  into 
the  inner  unity  of  things,  which  results  in  the  ideas  of 
general  relations,  principles,  and  laws ;  the  organising 
of  these  into  those  systems  of  knowledge  which  we  term 
sciences ;  and  the  attempt  to  organise  these  into  that  still 
higher  unity  of  knowledge  which  we  name  philosophy. 

Let  us,  therefore,  examine  more  closely  into  the 
nature  and  details  of  concepts,  with  regard  to  their 
origin,  constitution,  and  activities.  We  have  already 
asserted  that  they  are  derived  from  percepts,  and  pre- 
sentations generally ;  and  it  only  remains  to  say  how 
they  are  evolved. 


302  EDUCATION 

Some  details  have  previously  been  given  of  the  way 
in  which  concepts  are  developed.  The  foundation  of 
the  whole  process  is  the  recognition  of  the  distinction 
between  an  experience  and  our  judgment,  or  judg- 
ments, about  it ;  and  the  keeping  of  these  distinct  for 
mental  purposes.  This  is  done,  spontaneously  at  first, 
and  designedly  afterwards,  both  with  regard  to  experi- 
ences as  a  whole  and  to  each  detail  of  them. 

Thus  one  of  the  processes  in  the  development  of  the 
concept  is  the  separation  of  the  more  purely  mental 
elements  from  the  more  purely  material.  This  is  the 
result  of  a  process  of  analysis,  and  is  usually  spoken  of 
as  the  element  of  abstraction  in  the  concept. 

But  this  analysis  involves  more  than  the  mere  separa- 
tion, in  thought,  of  the  mental  from  the  other  elements 
in  an  experience.  These  mental  elements,  or  qualities, 
are  themselves  separated  from  each  other  by  their  simi- 
larities and  differences,  and  are  classified  and  grouped. 
Thus  difierent  shades  of  blueness  are  classified,  and  the 
classes  grouped  under  the  general  system  of  colour 
ideas.  So  also  classes  of  abstract  ideas  are  separated 
from  each  other,  but,  again,  all  grouped  under  a  general 
system.  Abstract  ideas  derived  from  visual  experiences 
are  kept  distinct  from  those  obtained  through  the  sense 
of  touch;  but  both  are  grouped,  with  others,  under 
the  system  of  those  derived  from  sense  experiences 
generally. 

Such  a  process  of  classification  involves  very  careful 
and  close  comparison  of  abstract  ideas  with  one  another; 
and,  therefore,  the  result  is  commonly  called  the  element 
of  comparison  in  the  concept.     Like  abstraction,  it  is 


THE  DEVELOPMENT    OP  IDEAS  303 

primarily  due  to  an  analytic  process,  but  it  also 
obviously  involves  a  process  of  synthesis. 

But  there  is  a  further  process  of  synthesis  in  the 
formation  of  a  concept.  All  those  ideas  of  qualities 
which  are  derived  through  experiences  connected  with 
one  and  the  same  thing  are  synthesised  into  a  mental 
whole,  which  retains  a  permanent  distinctness  and  in- 
dividuality of  its  own  in  the  mental  world.  We  may 
illustrate  this  by  pointing  out  that  the  percept  of  a 
square  is  expressed  by  saying  that  it  is  a  straight- 
sided,  fouivsided,  equal-sided,  right-angled,  figure; 
whilst  the  concept  of  it — which  is  the  concept  of 
squareness — is  expressed  by  saying  it  is  an  idea  which 
involves  the  ideas  of  rectilinealness,  quadrilateralness, 
equilateralness,  and  equiangularity. 

Such  concepts  as  those  of  rectilinealness,  blueness, 
length,  and  the  like,  are  those  to  which  we  have  pre- 
viously referred  as  simple  ideas.  They  involve  in 
themselves,  so  far  as  we  know,  only  one  single  element 
of  thought  and  experience. 

The  concept  definition  shows  at  once  the  elements  of 
abstraction,  in  the  four  ideational  units :  of  comparison, 
as  implied  in  the  different  names :  and  of  synthesis,  as 
involved  in  their  grouping  as  the  expression  of  one 
total  idea 

It  would  be  clearer  and  more  exact  to  speak  of  the 
elements  of  analysis  and  synthesis  in  the  concept,  rather 
than  of  those  of  abstraction  and  comparison;  for 
abstraction  and  comparison  are  neither  so  clear  in 
themselves,  nor  do  they  so  clearly  express  the  facts  of 
the  case. 


304  EDUCATION 

In  addition  to  the  elements  of  abstraction  and  com- 
parison, or  analysis  and  synthesis,  there  is  another  very 
important  element  in  the  concept.  When  once  the 
more  purely  mental  elements  or  qualities  have  been 
separated  from  an  experience,  there  is  no  reason  why 
they  should  be  looked  upon  as  belonging  to  any  par- 
ticular presentation ;  although  particular  presentations 
must  always  be  thought  of  as  involving  particular  con- 
cepts. Hence,  concepts,  whether  of  complexes  or 
individual  elements,  are  regarded  as  perfectly  general 
in  their  significance,  and  application  to  experience. 
Thus  one's  concept  of  squareness  does  not  belong  to 
this,  that,  or  the  other  square,  but  to  any  and  every 
square  that  now  exists,  or  ever  may  exist.  Similarly, 
the  concept  of  equiangularity  is  also  generalised. 

The  element  in  the  concept  which  is  thus  added  is 
known  as  the  element  of  generalisation.  The  applica- 
tion, extension,  and  expansion  of  this  element  plays  the 
most  essential  and  fruitful  part  in  the  higher  rational 
development. 

We  may  sum  up  the  foregoing  by  defining  a  concept, 
or  abstract  idea,  as :  an  intelligible  synthesis  of  attri- 
butes. The  word  intelligible  must  be  understood  in 
the  same  sense  as  in  the  definition  of  a  percept. 

Since  it  is  merely  the  distinct  conscious  separation, 
in  thought,  of  the  mental  from  the  other  elements  in 
experience  which  gives  the  rationally  separate  existence 
to  the  concept,  it  is  clear  that  the  concept  is  implicit 
in  every  experience,  and  that  it  may  be  made  explicit 
under  favourable  conditions. 

Concepts,  like  all  mental  elements,  have  certain  forms 


THE  DEVELOPMENT  OP  IDEAS  305 

of  activity  by  which  they  become  related  to  the 
members  of  their  own  and  other  classes.  Hence  con- 
cepts are  associated  with  one  another  in  classes,  and 
these  classes  are  united  into  systems. 

As  well  as  being  thus  associated  with  each  other, 
Goncepts  are  consciously  related  to  each  other,  as  to 
their  general  or  particular  agreement  or  difference. 
For  example,  the  judgments :  all  truthfulness  is  virtue ; 
some  success  is  moral;  force  is  no  remedy;  some 
criminals  are  not  vicious ;  involve  relations  of  concepts 
as  to  their  general  or  particular  agreement  or  difference. 
Such  relatings  of  concepts  to  one  another  constitute 
judgments  in  pure  reason. 

But  there  is,  under  the  stimulus  and  guidance  of 
the  mind  as  a  whole,  a  higher  kind  of  activity  amongst 
concepts  than  is  involved  in  judgments.  This  consists 
in  such  an  inter-relating  of  judgments  that  other 
concepts  result  from  them.  From  this  source  come  purely 
rational  judgments,  and  trains  of  rational  judgments, 
or  reasoning^. 

Eeasonings  may  be  of  two  kinds.  We  may  take  two 
or  more  judgments  dealing  with  one  and  the  same 
common  subject  matter  and  so  relate  these  to  each 
other  as  to  build  up  a  new  judgment.  Thus,  if  we  have 
the  two  judgments :  all  knowledge  is  helpful ;  and,  the 
science  of  education  is  knowledge ;  then  we  can  hardly 
help  recognising  that  the  judgment :  the  science  of 
education  is  helpful,  is  involved  in  them.  This  is 
clearly  a  synthetic  process.  It  is  called  deductive 
reasoning,  or  deduction.  The  activity  is  a  systematic 
extension  of  the   synthetic  processes  involved  in  the 

U 


306  EDUCATION 

formation  of  a  concept,  which  are  themselves  higher 
forms  of  the  fundamental  activities  of  assimilation  and 
discrimination. 

The  other  kind  of  reasoning  consists  in  analysing  a 
single  judgment,  or  a  series  of  similar  judgments,  and 
finding  that  a  universal  judgment  is  involved.  When 
Newton  saw  the  apple  fall  to  the  ground  he  would, 
implicitly  at  least,  make  a  judgment  to  that  effect. 
But  he  also  proceeded  to  analyse  this  judgment,  and 
others  like  it,  until  he  became  convinced  that  he  was 
justified  in  making  the  judgment :  The  reason  why 
bodies  sometimes  fall  is,  because  all  physical  bodies 
attract  each  other. 

Such  universal  judgments,  we  say,  express  principles, 
or  laws.  The  process  of  thought  is  obviously  analytic, 
except  as  to  the  summing  up  of  results  in  the  final 
judgment.  The  whole  is  called  inductive  reasoning 
or  induction.  A  detailed  example  of  inductive  reason- 
ing is  given  in  the  second  chapter,  and  discussed  in 
the  fourth.  The  process  is  a  systematic  .expansion  of 
the  analytic  activities  involved  in  the  formation  of  a 
concept,  which  are  themselves  higher  forms  of  the 
fundamental  activities  of  assimilation  and  discrimina- 
tion. 

A  great  deal  might  be  said  in  connection  with 
reasoning  and  its  educational  bearings,  for  these  are 
very  numerous  and  important.  But  the  subject  is 
much  too  wide  to  be  dealt  with  now.  It  could  only  be 
properly  considered  in  a  book  on  logic  and  its  relations 
to  education. 

The  above  form  what  we  may  call  the  unit  elements 


THE   DEVELOPMENT  OF  IDEAS  307 

of  knowledge.  These  are  unified  by  the  general 
activity  of  mind,  both  by  direct  and  indirect  means. 
The  direct  means  is  the  organising  eflEects  of  attention, 
and  the  indirect  means  is  the  use  of  a  symbolic  ma- 
chinery which  mind  invents,  and  which  we  term 
language.     It  will  be  necessary  to  consider  these. 

Ideas  and  Attention.  Apperception. — Attention  con- 
stitutes, or  rather  expresses,  both  the  receiving  and  the 
responding  activities  of  the  mind.  Sensations,  percepts, 
and  concepts,  that  is,  all  kinds  of  presentations,  must 
stimulate  the  attention  if  they  are  to  have  any  definite 
effect  upon  consciousness.  When  they  do  have  a 
definite  effect,  they  are  not  only  dealt  with  as  indivi- 
dual presentations,  but  their  relations  to  other  like 
experiences  are  taken  account  of. 

So  much  is  necessary  before  a  presentation  can  have 
definite  significance  for  us.  But  a  great  deal  more 
than  this  takes  place,  either  implicitly  or  explicitly. 
The  activity  of  attention  continues  the  work  of  assimi- 
lation and  discrimination,  to  a  greater  or  lesser  extent, 
into  the  higher  regions  of  thought.  The  implicit  and 
explicit  features  in  such  a  mental  pursuit  are  illustrated 
by  such  incidents  as  the  following. 

A  schoolboy  is  discovered  in  what  strikes  the  teacher 
as  a  particularly  bad  act  of  copying.  The  teacher  is  so 
impressed  with  the  gravity  of  the  offence  that  he  begins 
to  carefully  think  the  matter  over,  to  see  if  it  may  not 
be  the  result  of  ignorance  and  thoughtlessness  on  the 
boy's  part.  But  no  sooner  does  he  begin  to  attend 
vigorously  to  his  line  of  thought  than  all  sorts  of  things 
come  crowding  in  upon  his  mind.     The  boy  has   been 


308  EDUCATION 

in  ill  odour  with  Ms  fellows  through  some  mysterious 
disappearances  of  private  stores  from  their  boxes ;  he 
shirks  games ;  his  preparation-work  has  been  sus- 
piciously superior  to  his  class-work;  many  of  his 
actions  which  have  been  regarded  as  not  too  refined  are 
seen  to  have  a  sinister  connection  with  each  other ;  and 
so  on,  till  the  teacher  is  somewhat  astounded  at  the 
result,  and  at  the  fact  that  he  has  not  noticed  these 
things  before. 

As  a  matter  of  fact,  much  of  the  result  was  already 
prepared  in  the  mind,  through  the  implicit  organising 
efiects  of  attention,  and  it  only  required  the  more 
definite  act  of  special  attention  to  make  them,  and 
others,  explicit.  The  final  issue  might  be  to  remove 
the  act  from  the  class  of  individual  slips  in  conduct  to 
a  striking  manifestation  of  vicious  disposition  and 
character.  This  will  have  involved  the  highest  pro- 
cesses of  assimilation  and  discrimination,  or  analytic 
and  synthetic  thought,  viz.,  inductive  and  deductive 
reasonings. 

From  an  examination  of  the  separate  judgments 
about  details  of  conduct,  the  general,  though  limited, 
inductive  judgment:  all  these  actions  are  vicious, 
woald  be  made.  Then  the  following  deductive  reason- 
ing would  occur,  either  implicitly  or  explicitly :  all  boys 
who  systematically  do  vicious  acts  are  of  vicious  dis- 
position and  character ;  this  boy  is  a  boy  who  systemati- 
cally does  vicious  acts ;  therefore,  this  boy  is  of  a  vicious 
disposition  and  character. 

From  such  an  example  it  will  be  seen  that  attention 
carries  on  the  work  of  assimilation' and  disci'imination, 


THE   DEVELOPMENT   OF   IDEAS  309 

from  its  lowest  tonts  highest  forms,  through  an  organic 
and  complete  system  of  processes.  This  involves  the 
relating  of  a  presentation  to  a  class  of  like  presenta- 
tions, the  relating  of  it  through  this  class  to  allied 
classes  in  a  system  of  sach  presentations,  and  the  inter- 
relating of  it,  through  this  system,  more  or  less  fully, 
directly,  and  explicitly,  with  the  whole  mind. 

Sach  a  more  or  less  completely  systematic  inter- 
relation of  a  presentation  with  representative  elements 
is  known  as  apperception.  Professor  J.  M.  Baldwin 
has  well  defined  apperception  as:  '^The  synthesis  in 
consciousness  by  which  mental  data  of  any  kind  (sensa- 
tions, percepts,  concepts)  are  constructed  into  higher 
forms  of  relation,  and  the  perception  of  things  which 
are  related  becomes  the  perception  [i.e.,  rational  realisa- 
tion] of  the  relation  of  things." 

He  also  says:  "This  use  of  the  word  apperception 
to  express  the  broadest  act  of  mental  relation  is  of 
great  importance  and  value.  The  treatment  of  the 
very  distinct  and  familiar  act  of  mind  in  attention,  of 
grasping  details  and  relating  them  to  one  another  in  a 
new  mental  product,  has  heretofore  been  confined  to 
its  special  operations^ — as  perception,  conception,  judg- 
ment— to  each  of  which  a  different  name  was  given. 
The  term  apperception  singles  out  that  act  of  mind 
which  is  common  to  them  all — the  relating  activity  of 
consciousness — and  thus,  by  its  general  application, 
emphasises  the  unity  of  the  intellectual  function  as  a 
whole." 

Through  this  process  ideas  become  systemised  into 
the  highest  forms  of  thought.     The  concentration  of 


310  EDUCATION 

the  energy  of  attention  results  in  the  thorough  organi- 
sation of  presentations  in  relation  to  the  whole  mental 
structure. 

Whilst  association  of  ideas  is  determined  by  the  order 
of  experiences,  the  apperception  of  ideas  is  determined 
by  their  own  nature,  and  the  general  constitution  and 
condition  of  mind  at  the  moment.  We  may  regard 
each  of  the  ideas  possessed  by  the  mind  as  eagerly 
striving  to  obtain  from  a  presentation  whatever  is  of 
like  nature  to  itself.  When,  therefore,  the  mind  has 
acquired  skill  in  this  complete  assimilation  of  the 
different  mental  elements  in  a  presentation,  there  is  no 
longer  a  process  of  *' swallowing  things  whole"  and 
reproducing  them  with  literal  accuracy  as  in  youth; 
but,  in  place  of  this,  the  items  of  the  presentation 
seem  to  disappear  and  leave  few,  if  any,  traces  of  their 
original  forms. 

Because  of  this,  adults  often  think  they  have  lost 
their  powers  of  memory  when,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  these 
are  most  active,  powerful,  and  fruitful.  But  they  act 
more  through  assimilative,  than  through  mechanical, 
retention.  The  mind  reads,  marks,  learns,  and  inwardly 
digests  the  significance,  instead  of  retaining  merely  the 
direct  effects  of  experiences. 

A  group  of  ideas  which  absorbs  an  idea  from  a 
presentation  is  called  an  apperceiving  group;  the 
idea  is  said  to  be  apperceived ;  and  the  total  of  ideas, 
then  and  subsequently,  make  up  an  apperceptive  group. 

The  association  of  ideas  as  determined  by  the  order 
of  experiences  is  an  important  point  in  connection  with 
the  building  up  of  systems  of  ideas,  for  the  right  order  of 


THE   DEVELOPMENT   OF   IDEAS  311 

dependence  and  inter-relation  may  be  largely  indicated 
by  the  order  in  which  they  are  remembered. 

If  we  experiment  on  oarselves,  we  shall  find  that 
the  order  of  association  corresponds  to  the  order  of 
presentation  in  a  series.  Thus,  if  the  words  geranium, 
catapult,  dog,  cake,  book,  be  read  through  twice,  the 
reader  will  probably  be  able  to  repeat  them  from 
memory.  But  if  he  immediately  try,  without  any  kind 
of  preparation,  to  say  them  backwards,  he  will  un- 
doubtedly fail.  It  is  only  by  arranging  them  in  a 
backward  order,  and  so  making  a  new  series  of  them, 
that  they  can  be  so  associated. 

The  arrangement  of  ideas  which  are  to  form  a  system 
should,  therefore,  be  carefully  systemised  in  experience, 
so  far  as  this  may  be  possible. 

Persons  are  very  apt  to  be  too  mnch  dominated  by  a 
particular  apperceptive  group.  Almost  every  person  is 
necessarily  influenced  most  by  some  one  apperceptive 
group,  from  the  fact  that  he  is  most  concerned  with 
some  special  interest  in  life — such  as  his  business,  pro- 
fession, or  hobby — and,  therefore,  develops  the  ideas 
connected  therewith  very  extensively.  But,  if  this  be 
allowed  to  become  too  absorbing,  the  general  mental  life 
will  become  narrow  and  stereotyped,  with  the  result 
that  the  specially  developed  apperceptive  group  is  likely 
to  be  much  less  strong  and  sound  than  it  might  other- 
wise be. 

Because  of  the  general  inter-relation  and  inter- 
dependence of  every  part  of  mind,  no  one  power  can  be 
both  exclusively,  and  soundly,  developed ;  for  the  weak- 
ness of  one,  or  more,  of  the  other  powers  will  inevitably 


312  EDUCATION 

tend  to  weaken  the  predominant  one.  The  other  chief 
powers  should  therefore  be  maintained  at  an  average 
state,  at  least,  of  power  and  skill.  Otherwise,  there 
will  be  a  danger  of  developing  mischievous  forms  of 
enthusiasm,  faddism,  monomania,  and  the  like. 

Ideas  and  Language. — Doubtless  the  beginnings  of 
speech  are  to  be  found  in  the  cries  and  movements 
with  which  primitive  man  expressed  his  emotiona 
These  would  be  likely  to  repeat  themselves,  and  thus 
to  be  so  impressed  upon  the  person  using  them  that  the 
emotion  would  suggest  tjie  usual  signs  of  expression. 
These  would  become  general,  and  practically  traditional, 
through  the  imitativeness  of  children.  Hence  primitive 
man  would,  on  hearing  certain  cries,  or  seeing  certain 
actions,  immediately  think  that  certain  emotions,  and 
other  experiences,  were  being  undergone. 

Besides  this,  the  necessity  and  desire  of  communicating 
his  experiences  to  his  fellows  would  lead  to  the  imitation 
of  the  cries  and  actions  of  animate  things,  and  the  shapes 
and  movements  of,  and  the  sounds  made  by,  inanimate 
things.  Thus  a  very  crude  form  of  vocal  language,  and 
a  somewhat  complex  form  of  gesture  language,  would 
be  evolved. 

Soon,  however,  as  the  necessity  and  convenience  of 
signs  as  a  means  of  communication  became  more  fully 
recognised,  the  limitations  of  gestures  for  this  purpose 
would  be  felt.  The  great  ease  with  which  vocal  signs 
can  be  formed  ;  the  delicate  shades  of  expression  which 
they  admit  of ;  the  distances  at  which  they  are  effective; 
their  independence  of  visual  aid,  so  that  they  are  equally 
useful  during  day  and  night;  and  the  possibility  of 


THE   DEVELOPMENT   OF   IDEAS  313 

iBcreasiBg  them  to  a  practically  Dnlimited  extent,  would 
all  force  themselves  upon  those  who  most  desired  to 
communicate  with  others. 

Hence  vocal  signs  would  get  more  and  more  coherent 
and  systematic,  until  articulate  speech  was  developed. 
When  this  step  had  been  taken,  language,  in  the  form 
that  we  know  it,  would  begin  to  take  definite  shape. 
But  a  long  period  would  elapse  before  anything  like  an 
extensive  or  systematically  arranged  language  would 
appear.  Very  much  later  still  would  it  be  before  speech 
was  reduced  to  writing — first  of  a  pictorial  and  then  of 
a  conventional  character. 

We  have  spoken  of  the  necessity  as  well  as  the  con- 
venience of  language.  Now  this  necessity  is  a  mental 
as  well  as  a  practical  one.  Only  through  a  means  of 
communication  could  man  procure  much  aid  or  helpful 
companionship  from  his  fellow  man ;  and  only  through 
the  aid  of  signs  can  the  mind  carry  on  its  highest  pro- 
cesses. For  example,  it  is  found  that  though  the  deaf 
and  dumb  can  express,  with  great  freedom  and  accuracy, 
their  percepts  and  practical  experiences,  through  ges- 
tures and  imitations — either  with  or  without  the  deaf 
and  dumb  alphabet — yet  they  seem  incapable  of  forming 
many,  or  very  complex,  general  ideas,  because  they 
cannot  express  them. 

Doubtless  this  is  due  to  the  difficulty,  which  becomes 
an  impossibility  in  some  instances,  of  retaining"  in  full 
consciousness  all  the  elements  of  an  abstract  idea,  or 
indeed  of  a  complex  percept.  To  g* ve  an  extreme 
example  of  this,  the  total  idea  of  man  includes  all  the 
ideas  involved  in  those  attributes,  powers,  and  activities 


314  EDUCATION 

which  are  treated  of  m  psychology,  logic,  ethics,  hnman 
physiology,  and  human  anatomy,  as  well  as  a  great 
many  others  treated  of  in  the  various  sciences.  It  is 
clearly  impossible  to  have  all  these,  or  even  a  very  small 
fraction  of  them,  in  clear  consciousness  at  any  one 
moment. 

If  this  be  true  of  a  single  concept,  much  more  is  it 
true  of  two  concepts  and  the  processes  of  relating  them, 
as  involved  in  a  judgment.  And  still  more  urgent  be- 
comes the  necessity  of  symbols  for  thinking  out  series 
of  judgments,  or  reasonings.  It  is  because  of  this  that 
the  place  and  function  of  language  in  development  is  of 
such  essential  importance. 

Mind  has,  therefore,  invented  for  itself  a  kind  of 
mental  algebra,  which  we  call  language.  Just  as  in 
algebra  we  say  let  the  sign  *^  x"  stand  for  such-and-such 
things,  so  in  thought  we  say  let  the  symbol  "man" 
(spoken  and  written)  stand  for  whatever  of  our  total 
concept  of  man  is  being  dealt  with.  In  both  systems 
we  must  always  be  prepared  to  translate  the  sign  into 
the  thing  signified,  whenever  occasion  demands  it. 

Thought  is  originally  a  spontaneous  development  of 
mind,  and  is  necessarily  existent  before  there  can  be 
any  need  of  language  for  its  further  progress.  As  Dr. 
J.  Ward  says:  "While  it  is  possible  for  thought  to 
begin  without  language,  just  as  arts  may  begin  without 
tools,  yet  language  enables  us  to  carry  the  same  process 

enormously  farther But  thought  as  a  permanent 

activity  may  be  fairly  said  to  originate  in,  and  even  to 
depend  upon,  the  acquisition  of  speech." 

In  thinking  proper  there  is  always  the  exercise  of 


THE   DEVELOPMENT  OP  IDEAS  815 

voluntary  willing  upon  ideas.  In  other  words,  all 
thinking  is  a  voluntary  effort.  There  is  also  an  in- 
evitable element  of  design  as  to  the  line  of  thought,  and 
some  prevision,  however  slight,  of  what  the  end  will  ba 
We  never  think,  so  to  speak,  entirely  in  the  dark.  It 
is  necessary  that  we  should  know  what  end  we  are 
trying  to  reach,  or  we  can  never  achieve  any  intelligible 
thought  at  all,  for  there  is  no  centre  to  which  ideas  are 
directed.  To  this  extent  the  result  of  our  thought  is 
always  more  or  less  pre-determined. 

Some  element  of  interest  is,  therefore,  required. 
This  will  be  supplied  by  our  judgment  as  to  the  relation 
of  the  results  to  our  feelings  of  pleasure  and  pain; 
whether  through  intellectual  effects,  both  as  to  the  pro- 
cesses and  products  of  the  train  of  thought,  or  as  to  the 
actions  which  we  may  propose  to  take  on  the  final 
judgments  arrived  at.  As  a  rule,  trains  of  thought  will 
be  prompted  by  some  definite  desire  on  the  part  of  the 
thinker. 

In  all  such  thought  processes  and  conditions,  the 
percept  is  itself  its  own  symbol  of  the  purely  mental 
elements  which  it  involves,  and  which  are  always  im- 
plicitly active,  so  long  as  the  percept  is  before  the  mind 
presentatively,  or  representatively — through  the  mental 
image.  But  for  purely  rational  thought,  through  explicit 
abstract  ideas,  or  concepts,  no  such  natural  symbol  is 
possible,  and,  therefore,  its  place  is  taken  by  the  artificial 
word  sign. 

Just  as  the  percept,  or  its  image,  as  a  symbol,  is  an 
inseparable  part  of  practical  thought,  so,  when  once 
an  abstract  idea  has  been  definitely  associated  with  a 


316  EDUCATION 

word  sign,  the  word  and  the  concept — ^the  sign  and  its 
significance — are  inseparably  connected  in  thought 
processes.  The  word  is,  so  to  put  it,  not  merely  a 
deputy,  but  a  deputy  with  full  powers  to  act  for  the 
central  authority.  This  must  be  so,  if  what  we  have 
said  about  the  dependence  of  thought  on  language  be 
true,  for,  in  that  case,  to  endeavour  to  get  rid  of  the 
word-signs  in  a  train  of  reasoning  would  be  to  render 
the  reasoning  impossible. 

Words  represent  the  content  of  concepts  in  their 
most  abbreviated  and  condensed  forms.  They  fix  most 
clearly  and  permanently  in  mind  the  expression  of  the 
ends,  processes,  and  products  of  thought;  and  they 
tend  to  make  ideas  more  vivid  and  definite.  Written 
language  is  a  means  of  perpetuating  the  achievements 
of  experience  and  reason,  and  so  prevents  loss,  and 
much  useless  repetition  of  efibrt. 

At  the  same  time,  however,  words  often  prove  a  very 
serious  stumbling-block  to  thought  and  communication. 
Since  it  would  be  practically  impossible  to  have  an 
entirely  different  word  for  every  different  concept, 
much  less  for  all  the  various  shades  of  difference  in  each 
of  our  concepts — for  this  would  prove  too  great  a 
burden  for  the  memory — we  have  to  use  the  same  sign 
for  several  ideas,  or  things.  Thus  the  word  box  has 
many  meanings,  as  is  seen  in  the  terms :  clothes'  box, 
box  seat,  shooting-box,  boxer,  horse-box,  in  the  wrong 
box,  and  so  on.  Similarly  the  word  tendemessi  varies 
in  meaning  according  as  it  relates  to  personal  affec- 
tion, softness  of  material,  sensibility  of  a  wound,  and 
delicate  handlii^g. 


THE  DEVELOPMENT   OP  IDEAS  317 

Great  practical  advantage  is  derived  from  this  economy 
of  language,  bnt  there  is  great  danger  of  confusion  and 
error  if  the  inevitable  ambiguity  is  not  provided  for. 
It  is  often  expedient  in  ordinary  speech,  and  always 
necessary  in  cases  where  precision  and  accuracy  are 
important,  to  make  quite  clear  the  particular  sense  in 
which  we  are  using  a  word.  Even  when  a  word  has 
only  one  meaning  and  reference,  as  in  the  case  of 
oxygen,  it  is  still  possible  to  use  it  in  a  restricted  sense 
— e.g,j  with  regard  to  its  combustion  supporting  power 
— ^and  in  so  doing  to  mislead  a  beginner. 

Another  very  frequent  and  often  serious  source  of 
mischief  in  the  use  of  words  is  when  one  person,  who 
has  a  very  full  content  of  meaning  for  certain  words, 
uses  them  in  his  sense  to  another  who  has  a  very 
small  content  of  meaning.  Hence  the  adult  often  con- 
fuses the  child,  and  is  himself  misled  by  words  used 
by  children.  So,  also,  learned  and  ignorant  persons 
misunderstand  each  other. 

As  Dr.  Sully  remarks :  "  The  fact  that  the  child  is 
hearing  a  highly  developed  language  spoken  about  him, 
which  embodies  the  finer  distinctions  of  mature  intelli- 
gence, must  tend  tx)  bewilder  his  mind  at  first.  He  finds 
it  hard  to  distinguish  between  closely  related  and  over- 
lapping words,  *  healthy '  and  *  strong,*  *  sensible '  and 
*  clever,'  and  so  forth." 

It  is  necessary,  therefore,  to  constantly  bear  in  mind 
these  liabilities  to  error,  and  to  take  care  to  demand 
the  exact  significance  of  the  sign  where  error  is  likely 
to  arise  through  such  causes  as  the  above.  But  this 
must  not  be  pressed  too  far,  for  the  effort  to  be  over- 


318  EDUCATION 

precise  is  apt  to  be  as  confusing  as  the  lack  of  precision. 
Popularly  accepted  meanings,  scientific  assumptions, 
trade  usages,  personal  implications,  and  contexts,  all 
play  their  part  in  indicating  the  precise  meaning  of 
terms.  A  good  practical  rule  is :  when  in  doubt  challenge 
the  meaning. 

The  necessity  of  taking  account  of  these  things  is 
seen  when  we  reflect  that,  after  all,  it  is  the  ideas 
which  we  wish  to  develop  or  communicate.  The  words 
are  in  themselves  simply  the  machinery,  not  the  material, 
of  thought  and  communication. 

Some  General  Eemarks. — From  the  above  it  is  clear 
that  the  general  movement  of  ideational  development 
is  from  sensuous  elements  to  perceptual  apprehension, 
and  thence  to  conceptual  abstractions.  The  higher,  or 
conceptual,  development  we  find  to  be  dependent  upon 
the  use  of  language.  Hence  we  may  now  see  in  greater 
fulness  of  detail  what  is  implied  in  the  three  great 
stages  of  the  general  development  of  feeling,  knowing, 
and  willing. 

We  may  put  the  same  point  in  other  ways  by  saying 
that  the  line  of  progress  is  from  experiences  to  ideas, 
and  from  ideas  to  language;  or,  that  the  growth  of 
ideas  is  from  individual  and  particular  ideas  to  general 
ideas.  By  particular  ideas  we  mean  groups  of  similar 
individual  ideas,  as  to  which  the  elements  of  generality 
are  not  consciously  or  fully  realised. 

The  inter-dependence  of  these  cannot  be  too  strongly 
insisted  upon  in  view  of  the  unity  of  the  mental  life  as 
a  whole.  The  percept  involves  an  implicit  concept,  for 
its  element  of  meaning  is  purely  mental.     The  concept 


THE   DEVELOPMENT  OF   IDEAS  319 

implies  the  percept,  for  it  is  only  possible  to  abstract 
a  mental  meaning  from  that  which  has  it.  Both  con- 
cept and  percept  depend  upon  sensations,  for  without 
these  the  existence  of  mental  Ufe,  as  we  know  it,  would 
be  impossible. 

Dr.  Sully  puts  this  very  clearly  in  the  following 
passage :  "  The  powers  of  comparison  and  of  abstraction 
in  its  wide  sense  are  developed  in  connection  with  the 
process  of  perception  itself,  in  carrying  out  those 
detailed  operations  of  examining  objects  of  sense  on 
all  sides  which  are  involved  in  the  formation  of  clear 
percepts. 

"  Again,  the  power  of  seizing  similarity  in  the  midst 
of  diversity,  which  is  the  essential  process  in  building 
up  notions  of  classes  and  the  qualities  of  things, 
manifests  itself  in  a  lower  form  in  the  first  year  of  life.' 
To  recognise  the  mother's  voice,  for  example,  as  one  and 
the  same  through  all  the  changes  of  loudness  and  soft- 
ness, and  all  the  variations  of  pitch,  or  her  figure, 
through  all  the  changes  of  light,  distance,  and  position, 
clearly  implies  a  certain  rudimentary  power  of  com- 
paring unlike  impressions  and  detecting  likeness  amid 
this   unlikeness." 

So  also  individual  and  particular  ideas  iDvolve  general 
ideas,  for  it  is  the  recognition  of  a  universal  element 
in  particular  ideas  which  constitutes  the  general  idea. 
The  direct  dependence  of  general  ideas  on  individual 
ones  is  thus  obvious.  The  inter-dependence  is  seen  in 
detail  in  the  consideration  of  inductive  and  deductive 
reasoning. 

Another  point  which  needs  special  emphasis  is  the 


320  EDUCATION 

dependence  of  language  on  experience  and  thonglit. 
Language  cannot  exist  without  thought,  or  thought 
without  experience;  and  language  only  exists,  in  a 
significant  sense  for  the  individual,  in  so  far  as  it  is 
directly  connected,  through  his  concepts  and  percepts, 
with  some  content  of  purely  mental  or  general  experi- 
ence. To  read  a  paragraph  of  English  on  psychology, 
with  plenty  of  technical  terms  in  it,  is,  for  all  practical 
purposes,  almost  as  meaningless  to  children — and,  ex- 
perience shows,  to  intelligent  but  uninstructed  adults — 
as  to  read  to  them  a  passage  of  Chinese. 

Liebnitz  says:  "For  the  most  part,  especially  in 
longer  analyses,  we  do  not  behold  at  a  glance  the  whole 
nature  of  the  thing,  but  employ  signs  instead  of  things. 
We  commonly  omit,  for  the  sake  of  expedition,  any 
explication  of  these  signs  in  present  thought,  knowing 
or  believing  that  we  have  such  explication  in  our  power. 
Thus,  when  I  think  of  a  chiliagon,  or  a  polygon  of  a 
thousand  equal  sides,  I  do  not  always  expressly  con- 
sider the  nature  of  a  side,  of  equality,  and  of  a  thou- 
sand (or  cube  of  ten);  but  I  employ  these  words — 
whose  meaning  is  only  obscurely  and  imperfectly 
perceived  by  the  mind  at  once  "  (T.  S.  Baynes). 

There  must,  therefore,  either  through  direct  experi- 
ence, or  through  the  interpretative  power  of  thought 
as  based  upon  experience,  always  be  a  real  content  of 
meaning  put  into  a  word  by  the  individual  himself — 
this  includes  the  acceptance,  after  intelligent  apprehen- 
sion, of  what  is  offered  as  meaning  by  another — before  it 
can  have  any  proper  significance  for  him. 

As  has  been  previously  pointed  out,  it  is  possible, 


THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  IDEAS  321 

when  a  very  advanced  stage  of  mental  power  and  skill 
has  been  reached,  to,  in  some  degree,  work  backwards 
from  the  sign  to  the  thing  signified ;  but  this  is  only 
possible  where  there  is  already  a  rich  content  of  signifi- 
cance for  all  ordinary  signs.  Perhaps  a  good  example, 
in  a  special  form,  of  this  is  the  skill  which  some  few 
persons  have  shown  in  working  out  the  meaning  of 
private  systems  of  mnemonics  and  shorthand,  to  which 
no  direct  key  of  any  kind  existed,  so  far  as  they 
knew. 

As  a  merely  suggestive  indication  of  the  relation 
between  the  special  development  of  ideas  and  the  general 
order  of  development,  the  following  statement  may  be 
submitted.  In  the  first  period,  and  in  or^er  of  pre- 
dominant importance,  we  have :  sense  presentations,  a 
gradual  growth  of  percepts,  increase  of  the  fulness  and 
definiteness  of  more  or  less  implicit  ideas,  and  a  limited 
command  of  language.  In  the  second  period  there  will 
be:  sense  and  percept  presentations,  an  increasing 
thoroughness  and  systemisation  of  percepts,  practical 
reasoning,  elementary  but  progressive  abstract  ideas 
and  reasoning,  and  a  good  command  of  language. 
During  the  third  period  the  chief  features  will  be: 
percept,  sense,  and  concept  presentations,  great  progress 
in  thoroughness  and  systemisation  of  abstract  ideas  and 
reasonings,  higher  relatings  of  perceptual  and  sensuous 
elements,  and  a  more  or  less  complete  familiarity  with, 
and  facility  in  the  use  of,  language.  These  will  vary 
at  the  beginning  of  the  period,  and  in  later  years, 
according  to  the  individuality  and  surroundings  of  a 
person. 

X 


CHAPTEE  VII 

GENERAL  PKINCIPLES   OF   EDUCATION  —  (conftnuerf) 

We  shall  now  be  able  to  obtain  a  still  fuller  and  more 
detailed  idea  of  what  is  involved  in  the  general  "  prin- 
ciple of  development  "  in  education ;  and  also  to  deal 
with  some  other  principles.  The  fuller  inquiry  into  a 
special  element  in  the  general  development  of  an  indi- 
vidual has  given  us  a  more  complete  insight  into  the 
precise  order  of  progress ;  and  has  also  shown  us  the 
place  and  function  of  other  important  influences  and 
conditions,  viz.,  language  and  apperception,  and  the 
ways  in  which  they  affect  development. 

The  Principle  of  Development  — Following  the  previous 
method  of  treatment,  we  will  discuss  this  principle 
under  the  various  practical  maxims  which  are  generally 
accepted  as  guiding  principles  in  practical  teaching. 
As  before,  we  shall  find  that  they  are  in  certain  respects 
incomplete,  and  often  somewhat  misleading  in  their 
general  suggestions ;  but  they  will  serve  very  well  as 
texts  through  which  the  more  precise  truth  can  be 
interpreted. 

1.  From  the  Concrete  to  the  Abstract  —  This  will  now 
be  understood  to  mean :  from  presentations  to  percepts. 


GENERAL  PRINCIPLES  323 

and  from  percepts  to  concepts,  in  the  building  up  of 
each  item  of  knowledge  development  But  it  must  still 
be  borne  in  mind  that  the  different  stages  of  develop- 
ment require  that  we  should  proceed  from  presentation 
to  presentation,  next  from  percept  to  percept,  then 
from  percept  to  concept,  afterwards  from  concept  to 
concept,  and  finally,  at  least  in  the  case  of  the  more 
capable,  from  a  constructive  concept  to  the  realisation 
of  what  certain  possible  percepts  would  mean  for  us,  in 
mental  effects. 

By  the  term  "  constructive  concept "  is  meant  a 
concept  which  is  built  up  by  the  mind  itself,  apart 
from  any  single  actual  experience,  direct  from  the  con- 
cept elements  given  by  various  experiences.  Those 
concepts  which  are  directly  formed  from,  and  answer 
to,  given  percepts  may  be  called  "  reproductive  con- 
cepts, "  since  they  only  involve  the  separate  reproduction 
of  the  purely  mental  effects  of  experience.  We  shall 
discuss  this  matter  more  fully  when  dealing  with  the 
principle  of  analysis  and  synthesis. 

Dr.  Karl  Lange,  speaking  of  the  child's  gradual 
development,  says :  "  As  the  compass  of  its  outward 
experiences  arrives  at  a  certain  completion  only  after 
the  work  of  years,  so  also  does  the  breadth  of  its 
consciousness,  the  power  to  grasp  and  retain  ideas  as  a 
whole,  increase  but  gradually.  The  epoch  of  develop- 
ment in  which  the  child  is  able  to  think  only  in 
pictures  is  followed  by  another  in  which  it  really  gives 
him  pleasure  to  lift  himself  in  the  abstract  above  the 
confusing  variety  of  individual  objects  up  to  the  uni- 
versal law,  that  is,  to  rule  and  concept. "     This  points 


324  EDUCATION 

out  the  movement  of  development  through  presenta- 
tions, percepts,  images,  and  concepts. 

As  Pestalozzi  says :  "  No  matter  what  a  teacher  may 
attempt,  he  can  at  best  do  no  more  than  assist  the 
child's  nature  in  the  efforts  it  makes  to  unfold  itself. 
To  so  manage  that  the  instruction  given  to  a  child  shall 
keep  exact  pace  with  the  unfolding  of  his  mind  is  one 
grand  secret  of  education. "  In  so  far  as  the  develop- 
ment of  ideas  is  concerned,  this  will  mean :  first  from 
percepts  to  perceptual  reasonings,  and  then  from  con- 
cepts to  conceptual  reasonings.  It  may  be  said  that 
the  former  will  very  largely  look  after  themselves,  but 
the  latter — and  both,  for  their  highest  forms  —  need 
careful  cultivation. 

The  educator  must,  therefore,  provide  the  proper 
presentative  and  perceptive*  experiences,  in  the  best 
order,  for  producing  full  and  exact  ideas  in  the  mind. 
When  something  like  a  considerable  store  of  ideas  has 
thus  been  acquired,  the  mind  itself  may  be  called  upon 
to  do  much  of  the  work  for  itself,  by  filling  in  the 
details  of  ideas,  through  its  power  of  representing  and 
recombining  images  and  ideas.  That  is,  there  will  be 
an  advance  from  reproductive  to  constructive  ideas, 
both  practical  and  purely  rational. 

To  lead  up  to  the  formation  of  concepts,  there  will 
have  to  be  a  good  deal  in  the  way  of  simple  experi- 
ment and  verbal  explanation.  For  example,  if  it  be 
desired  to  get  a  pupil  to  form  a  full  and  accurate 
concept  of  squareness  we  must  proceed  somewhat  after 
the  following  manner.  All  the  necessary  concrete  ex- 
periences,  or  presentative  elements,  involved  in  ex- 


GENERAL  PRINCIPLES  325 

ploring  a  square  object  by  the  bands  and  eyes  and 
measuring  by  a  ruler  and  a  set  square,  must  be  first 
employed,  until  they  have  produced  permanently  clear 
and  distinct  ideas.     Thus  the  percept  is  secured. 

Then  the  verbal  expression  for  a  square  should  be 
deduced,  or  supplied.  We  will  suppose  that  the  follow- 
ing simple  form  is  used :  a  square  is  a  straight-lined, 
four-sided  figure,  with  all  its  sides  equal,  and  all  its 
angles  right  angles.  It  is  now  required  to  get  the 
mind  to  think  only  of  the  mental  effects  made  by  the 
concrete  facts,  and  in  so  doing  to  entirely  ignore, 
for  the  time  being,  the  actual  sense  experiences  in- 
volved. 

Assuming  that  the  learner's  mind  is  unfamiliar  with 
the  process  of  forming  explicit  concepts,  we  must  care- 
fully lead  up  to  the  mental  abstraction  involved.  In 
the  first  place  we  must  vary  the  square  shaped  concrete 
material  as  much  as  possible,  so  as  to,  so  to  speak, 
loosen  the  connection  between  the  mental  effects  and 
the  sense  experiences.  If  we  have  first  dealt  with  the 
square  face  of  a  wooden  cube,  we  might  next  take  a 
very  thin  piece  of  wood  which  is  square.  ^  Afterwards 
other  materials  should  be  used,  such  as  iron,  tin,  copper, 
cloth,  and  pape^;  and  the  square  should  be  of  many 
sizes.  Each  of  these  should  be  as  thin  as  possible.  A 
square  piece  might  be  cut  out  of  a  very  thin  piece  of 
shaving.  This  is  to  lead  up  to  and  suggest  the  fact  that 
the  minimum  of  material  has  all  the  conditions  for 
being  a  square.  Next  cut  out  as  much  as  possible  of 
the  material  of  the  square,  leaving  only  a  very  thin 
edging  of  it.     This  forms  a  still  nearer  approach  to  the 


326  EDUCATION 

idea  of  mere  outline,  shape,  or  torm,  which  is  the  basis 
of  the  concept. 

Practically  all  that  is  possible  has  now  been  done  in 
fining  down  the  elements  of  concrete  experience  as 
involved  in  the  idea.  The  next  step  is.  therefore,  an 
important  one.  We  want  to  get  from  the  material  the 
something  which  it  involves,  but  which  can  be  separated 
from  it.  Happily  the  physical  world  itself  gives  us  the 
necessary  conditions.  Let  the  last,  and  least,  physical 
form  of  a  square  be  held  in  front  of  a  looking-glass. 

No  very  great  diflBculty  is  likely  to  be  met  with  in 
getting  the  learner  to  grasp  the  fact  that  whilst  there 
is  none  of  the  material  of  the  actual  square  in  the 
looking-glass,  yet  there  is  all  of  that  which  makes  it  a 
square  for  our  minds,  viz.,  its  shape.  There  are  the 
four  straight  and  equal  sides,  and  the  four  right  angles, 
reflected  in  the  glass ;  and  this  reflection  gives  all  that 
the  mind  requires  for  the  idea  of  a  square.  It  can  now 
be  pointed  out  that  the  idea  of  square  has  only  to  do 
with  the  shape,  or  form,  of  a  thing. 

Finally,  it  remains  to  secure  the  mental  realisation 
of  the  possible  separateness  of  the  idea  from  the  experi- 
ence. The  first  approach  to  this  is  to  require  the 
learner  to  shut  his  eyes  and  try  to  see  a  picture  of  the 
square  in  his  mind,  in  other  words,  to  "will  the  imaging 
of  a  square.  He  will  doubtless  be  able  to  do  this  easily 
enough.  Let  him  then  be  carefully  questioned  about 
it.  He  will  probably  describe  it  as  like  to  the  looking- 
glass  reflection.  He  should  then  be  asked  if  there  were 
four  sides ;  if  they  appeared  to  be  straight  and  equal 
sides ;  and  if  the  angles  seemed  to  be  right  angles. 


GENERAL  PRINCIPLES  327 

Now  language  may  be  properly  brought  in  to  assist 
pure  thought.  The  learner  can  be  told  that  a  square 
thing  is  said  to  have  squareness.  He  should  then  be 
questioned  as  to  whether  he  thinks  that  the  squareness 
of  a  thing  can  be  seen  by  itself,  as  the  thing  is  so  seen. 
He  ought  not  to  have  much  difficulty,  if  the  previous 
work  has  been  thorough  and  successful,  in  grasping 
the  fact  that  one  can  by  seeing  a  thing  judge  that  it  is 
square,  but  cannot  see  its  squareness,  as  such.  Where 
then  is  the  squareness,  is  the  next  point.  Here  again 
the  learner  ought  now  to  be  able  to  realise  that  it  is 
simply  the  idea  in  the  mind  which  expresses  the  mental 
efifects  produced  by  square  objects.  We  cannot  see, 
touch,  hear,  taste^  or  smell,  squareness,  we  can  only 
think  it. 

Further,  the  total  idea  of  squareness  involves  all  the 
separate  effects  produced  by  the  details  of  a  square. 
That  is,  squareness  implies  straight-sidedness,  four- 
sidedness,  equal-sidedness,  and  right-angledness ;  or,  to 
use  the  technical  terms  of  geometry,  rectilinealness, 
quadrilateralness,  equilateralness,  and  rectangularity. 
Each  of  these  elements  represents  a  mental  abstraction, 
by  which  the  mental  effects  of  the  distinct  details  of  a 
complex  experience  are  regarded  as  things  in  them- 
selves, though  parts  of  a  total  mental  whole. 

This  may  appear  a  long  and  laborious  method  by 
which  to  arrive  at  a  single  concept.  But  it  must  be 
remembered  that  not  only  is  a  concept  thus  most  easily, 
fully,  clearly,  and  accurately  formed ;  but  the  discipline 
in  method  derived  from  thus  carefully  forming  one  or 
two  concepts  is  likely  to  give  such  facility,  power,  and 


328  EDUCATION 

skill,  in  the  forming  of  explicit  concepts,  that  the  final 
results  will  be  incomparably  more  extensive  and  in- 
tensive in  product,  and  more  rapid  and  accurate  in 
process,  than  any  haphazard  blundering  into  success, 
through  force  of  circumstances,  and  severe  struggles. 
It  is  not  success  in  doing  one  thing  that  is  primarily 
aimed  at  by  the  educator,  but  the  finally  obtaining 
power  to  do  many  things  successfully. 

It  should  be  noticed  that,  in  the  above  example,  the 
conceptual  elements  are  always  based  upon,  and  derived 
from,  the  perceptual.  The  young  thinker  must  always 
have  a  foundation  in  experience,  wherever  possible. 

Canon  Daniel  has  well  said:  "Children  are  not 
sufllciently  required  to  use  their  senses.  They  are 
allowed  to  observe  by  deputy.  They  look  at  nature 
through  the  spectacles  of  books,  and  through  the  eyes 
of  the  teacher,  but  do  not  observe  for  themselves  .... 
[Teachers]  have  taught  as  though  their  pupils  had  eyes 
that  saw  not,  and  ears  that  heard  not,  and  noses  that 
smelled  not,  and  palates  that  tasted  not,  and  skins  that 
felt  not,  and  muscles  that  would  not  work.  They  have 
insisted  on  taking  the  words  out  of  nature's  mouth  and 
speaking  for  her.  They  have  thought  it  derogatory  to 
play  a  subordinate  part  to  the  object  itself." 

2.  From  the  Particular  to  the  General.— A  presentation, 
or  a  percept,  must  always  refer  directly,  and  only,  to 
just  this  or  that  object.  It  is  this  or  that  impression 
which  is  actually  influencing  the  mind  at  the  moment. 
Hence  it  is  impossible  for  it,  in  itself,  to  refer  to,  imply, 
or  involve,  anything  except  itself.  To  put  the  point  in 
another  way,  a  percept  of  this  page  or  this  book  is  just 


GENERAL  PRINCIPLES  329 

itself  and  notliing  else ;  nor  does  it,  or  can  it,  directly 
involve  any  other  percept  or  percepts.  It  is  true  that 
the  effects  of  other  experiences  are  involved  in  the 
interpreting  of  the  present  one,  but  this  element  of 
interpretation  is  an  essential  part  of  the  percept,  so 
that  neither  interpretation  nor  percept  exists  apart  from 
each  other. 

Because  of  this  we  say  that  a  presentation  or  a 
percept  is  an  individual  thing.  In  so  far  as,  from  the 
point  of  view  of  later  knowledge,  it  is  one  of  a  large 
class  of  like  presentations  or  percepts  it  is  said  to  be 
particular,  because  it  is  a  part  only  of  a  general  or 
common  class  of  things. 

From  the  idea  of  a  single  concrete  whole,  we  gradu- 
ally arrive,  through  repeated  and  extended  experiences, 
at  what  we  have  called  the  collective  idea  of  a  group  of 
similar  concrete  wholes.  Not  that  such  wholes  need 
actually  be  seen  in  a  group,  but  that  the  mind  can 
think  of  the  repeated  percepts  as  though  they  occurred 
together.     This  may  be  called  a  concrete  general  idea. 

When  the  idea,  and  its  elements,  as  such,  are 
separated  from  the  impressions  which  give  rise  to  them, 
and  come  to  exist  as  those  distinct  mental  wholes 
which  we  term  concepts,  then  the  idea,  as  such,  is 
entirely  and  purely  general,  for  it  stands  for  a  possible 
infinity  of  like  things,  so  far  as  certain  mental  effects 
produced  by  them  are  concerned. 

Thus  there  is  a  movement  from  the  particular  to  the 
general.  This  is  true  nqt  only  of  ideas  but  also  of 
judgments,  when  an  inductive  judgment  is  being  formed, 
and,  therefore,  of  reasonings.    Also,  the  general  move- 


330  EDUCATION 

ment  consists  of  several  stages.  First,  we  have  the 
progress  from  the  particular  to  the  particular,  then 
from  particulars  to  generals,  next  from  generals  to 
other  generals — wider,  in  induction  ;  or  in  deduction  as 
wide,  or  less  wide,  but  not  wider — or  to  particulars. 

We  may  illustrate  the  maxim  by  the  following.  A 
child  gets  a  clear  idea  of  an  oak-tree,  through  frequent 
experiences  connected  with  one  near  its  home.  As  it 
grows  able  to  run  about  more  it  sees  other  oak-trees, 
and  its  idea  becomes  more  full  and  distinct.  In  time 
it  will  have  a  satisfactorily  distinct  idea  of  an  oak-tree, 
and  will,  as  a  rule,  be  able  to  identify  one  without 
hesitation  or  mistake.  This  movement  from  the 
particular  to  the  particular  makes  the  individual  idea 
clear  and  distinct. 

As  time  goes  on  the  idea  will  take  on  a  collective 
significance,  that  is,  it  will  stand  for  all  the  oak-trees 
the  individual  has  actually  seen  or  heard  about.  That 
is,  the  child  now  has  what  we  have  called  the  concrete 
general  idea.  Later  on  the  essential  characteristics 
and  qualities  of  an  oak-tree  will  be  known,  and  the 
learner  will  be  able  to  make  the  judgment :  all  trees 
which  have  such-and-such  qualities  are  oak-trees.  Now 
the  true  general  idea  is  formed,  and  the  learner  realises 
what  a  class  is,  in  the  scientific  sense  of  the  term.  The 
movement  from  the  particular  to  the  general,  in  its 
fullest  sense,  has  now  been  made. 

Next  we  may  suppose  that  the  individual  notices 
that  the  order  of  events  in  the  life  of  a  tree  results  in 
the  production  of  seeds  every  year,  and,  so  far  as  he 
understands  the  nature  of  the  tree's  life,  he  judges  that 


GENERAL  PRINCIPLES  ^  331 

this  result  must  inevitably  occur  under  normal  condi- 
tions. He,  therefore,  asserts  that  all  oak-trees  produce 
seed.  It  will  be  seen  that  this  is  a  higher  kind  of 
generalisation  than  the  former;  for  that  was  but  a 
formal  or  classifying  judgment,  whilst  this  is  judgment 
about  cause  and  effect,  and  gives  us  what  we  may  call 
constructive  knowledge  about  all  oak-trees. 

From  this  last-mentioned  judgment  the  scientific 
observer,  investigator,  and  thinker,  is  able  to  hazard, 
and  finally  establish,  the  wider  inductive  judgment  that: 
all  living  organisms  reproduce  themselves.  Thus  from 
a  limited  generalisation  comes  an  absolutely  universal 
one.  Again  from  this  we  may  reason  backwards  thus : 
all  organisms  are  reproductive ;  all  trees  are  organisms ; 
therefore,  all  trees  are  reproductive.  So  we  get  deduc- 
tively from  a  wider  to  a  less  wide  general  judgment. 
And,  finally,  we  may  reason  down  to  the  particular, 
thus :  all  trees  are  reproductive ;  a  mulberry  is  a  tree ; 
therefore,  a  mulberry  is  reproductive. 

Such  a  procedure  is  by  far  the  easiest,  surest,  and 
most  fruitful,  method  by  which  the  beginner  can 
acquire  knowledge.  As  Mr.  Herbert  Spencer  points 
out:  "General  formulas  which  men  have  devised  to 
express  groups  of  detail,  and  which  have  severally 
simplified  their  conceptions  by  uniting  many  facts 
into  one  fact,  they  have  supposed  must  simplify  the 
conceptions  of  a  chUd  also.  They  have  forgotten 
that  a  generalisation  is  simple  only  in  comparison 
with  the  whole  mass  of  particular  truths  it  com- 
prehends— ^that  it  is  more  complex  than  any  one  of 
these   truths   taken   singly — that  only  after  many  of 


332  EDUCATION 

these  single  truths  have  been  acquired,  does  the 
generalisation  ease  the  memory  and  help  the  reason — 
and  that  to  a  mind  not  possessing  these  single  truths  it 
is  necessarily  a  mystery.  Thus  confounding  two  kinds 
of  simplification,  teachers  have  constantly  erred  by 
setting  out  with  '  first  principles ' :  a  proceeding  essen- 
tially, though  not  apparently,  at  variance  with  the 
primary  rule,  which  implies  that  the  mind  should  be 
introduced  to  principles  through  the  medium  of  ex- 
amples, and  so  should  be  led  from  the  particular  to  the 
general." 

The  whole  process  is  really  one  of  systematic  apper^ 
ception.  An  apperceptive  group  is  formed,  and  all 
further  and  deeper  knowledge  about  the  same  kind  of 
things  is  apperceived  by  it.  The  more  closely  the 
educator  can  cause  the  influences  to  correspond  with 
the  proper  order  of  mental  development,  the  more 
easily,  completely,  and  accurately,  will  the  apperceptive 
group  develop.  In  other  words,  the  teacher  should,  as 
a  rule,  not  begin  with  a  definition,  law,  or  formula,  but 
end  with  it. 

Dr.  De  Garmo  says:  "Education  must  make  it  a 
special  business  to  teach  the  child  to  pass  easily  from 
the  individual  to  the  general,  because  the  generalisations 
of  children,  savages,  and  uneducated  or  poorly  educated 
persons  are  very  elementary  and  incomplete.  They  do 
not  contain  all  the  characteristics  common  to  a  given 
class,  nor  do  they  exclude  all  characteristics  which 
were  only  in  certain  individuals.  The  untrained 
thinker  is  content  with  types  chosen  from  among  in- 
dividuals; so  that,  even  in  the  formation  of  general 


GENERAL  PRINCIPLES  333 

conceptions  regarding  things,  the  mind  must  be  trained 
to  distinguish  the  essential  from  the  non-essential. 
But  if  this  be  true  of  things,  how  much  more  must  it 
be  true  in  regard  to  ...  .  the  necessary  relation  of 
things  "  (Essentials  of  Method). 

A  word  or  two  is  necessary  here  as  to  what  charac- 
teristics shall  be  regarded  as  essential,  in  the  sense  of 
constituting  the  general  idea,  or  class  concept.  In  the 
first  place  they  must,  of  course,  be  common  to  every 
member  of  the  class.  Next  they  must  be  causal  and 
not  casual,  that  is,  they  must  have  some  definite  con- 
nection with  the  very  existence  of  the  individuals 
composing  the  class,  and  not  be  mere  accidental  features. 
Thus,  the  fact  of  being  able  to  breathe  when  in  and 
under  water,  and  unable  to  breathe  when  out  of  it,  and 
not  the  fact  of  spending  its  life  in  the  water  marks  off 
the  real  fish  kind  from  such  animals  as  the  whale. 
Finally,  the  attributes  should  be  as  few  as  possible,  so 
long  as  they  clearly  and  unmistakably  mark  off,  and 
mark  out,  one  class  from  another.  Only  scientific 
experts  can  settle  such  points  authoritatively. 

Whilst  it  is  hardly  possible  to  attach  too  much 
importance  to  this  order  of  progress  from  the  particular 
to  the  general,  yet  here,  as  elsewhere  in  the  mental  life, 
the  two  elements  are  developing  simultaneously,  though 
in  very  different  proportions.  It  is  again  a  case  of  pro- 
portional waning  and  waxing  (in  predominance  only), 
respectively,  of  the  two  elements.  This  must  be  recog- 
nised ;  and  there  should  always  be  provision  for,  and 
encouragement  of,  that  which  is  at  first  subordinate. 

Language  is  always  an  implicit  helper  in  this  matter, 


334  EDUCATION 

and  should  be  made  an  explicit  one,  so  far  as  the 
educator  is  concerned.  Thus,  in  teaching  the  child  to 
call  a  certain  animal  a  dog,  and  then  other  animals 
which  are  like  it,  on  the  whole,  but  unlike  it  as  to  details, 
by  the  same  name,  we  are,  either  implicitly  or  explicitly, 
helping  them  to  develop  the  general  and  the  particular 
elements  of  ideas  at  the  same  time.  The  more  this  is 
attended  to  by  the  educator,  the  greater  will  be  the  pro- 
gress towards  accurate  general  ideas  on  the  part  of  the 
learner. 

But  this  should  be,  so  to  say,  concealed  from  the 
child,  that  is,  no  effort  should  be  made  to  make  the 
general  elements  of  ideas  explicit,  until  there  is  a  full 
and  facile  command  of  the  elements  of  explicit  indi- 
vidual and  particular  ideas.  Nothing  should  be  done 
which  is  likely  to  hinder  the  latter  development,  or,  in 
the  long  run,  the  former  will  be  even  more  hindered  in 
con  .sequence. 

The  practical  progress  of  the  general  idea  can  be  very 
much  helped  through  a  system  of  word  combinations. 
Thus  the  animal  in  the  house  which  is  known  as  a  dog 
will  also  doubtless  be  known  by  another  name,  say, 
Carlo.  This  fact  may  be  made  use  of  by  sometimes 
requiring  the  child  to  say  Carlo-dog.  When  its  experi- 
ence of  dogs  extend,  then  it  may  be  taught  to  say: 
dog,  not  Carlo-dog.  Later  on  will  come:  dog,  little- 
dog,  poodle-dog,  little-poodle-dog,  big-white-poodle-dog, 
and  so  on. 

Such  word  combinations  should,  however,  not  be 
used  too  frequently,  or  they  may  prove  puzzling,  and 
hinder  more  than  help.     Their  only  purpose  is  to  get  the 


GENERAL   PRINCIPLES  335 

learner  to  express  something  of  the  connection  of  the 
ideas  by  a  connection  of  words,  which  will  always  sug- 
gest somewhat  of  the  inner  truth,  and,  finally,  should 
directly  indicate  it.  This  kind  of  term  building  is  seen 
in  its  most  scientific  and  suggestive  form  in  the  tech- 
nical terms  of  botany  and  chemistry. 

A  basis  of  such  verbal  help  is  already  provided  in  the 
child^s  own  efforts,  assisted  by  the  mother  or  nurse,  at 
connecting  imitative  gesture  language  with  the  purely 
conventional  in  such  combinations  as  "moo-cow,"  and 
*'  bow-wow-dog."  The  effect  of  a  purposeful  organisa- 
tion of  words  on  such  lines  is  to  provide  a  strong 
mechanical  momentum  towards  general  ideas.  The 
common  name  in  all  the  combinations  represents  the 
class,  or  general  element,  and  the  varying  words  repre- 
sent the  different  sub-classes  or  individuals,  and,  there- 
fore, the  particular  or  individual  elements. 

At  the  proper  time  in  the  general  development  all 
these  points  will  be  made  explicit,  and  then  there  will 
be  no  further  need  of  such  complex  terms,  for  mental 
association  will  do  far  more  than  word  combinations  can 
possibly  accomplish.  The  mind  will  fill  the  verbal 
form  with  content,  without  much  detailed  suggestion 
from  the  word  itself. 

The  highest  educational  success  is  to  obtain  such  a 
mastery,  by  the  individual,  of  the  processes  involved  in 
the  development  from  the  particular  to  the  general,  that 
either  a  progressive  or  regressive  advance  has  become 
comparatively  easy  and  reliable. 

The  Principle  of  Analysis  and  Synthesis.— As  we  have 
before  stated,  all  progress  in  thought  involves  higher 


336  EDUCATION 

and  deeper  forms  of  the  fundamental  processes  of 
the  mental  powers  of  assimilation  and  discrimination. 
We  have  seen  that  the  highest,  forms  of  these  are  in- 
ductive and  deductive  reasoning,  and  that  they  are, 
respectively,  essentially  analytic  and  synthetic  in  their 
nature.  Hence  the  principle  of  analysis  and  synthesis 
is  one  of  the  most  fundamental,  general,  and  significant, 
of  all  the  educational  principles. 

It  is  through  a  scientifically  logical  arrangement  of 
the  elements  dealt  with  in  analysing  and  synthesising 
that  we  obtain  the  order  of  greatest  simplicity  in  dealing 
with  a  complex  whole,  and  are  thus  able  to  lead  the 
learner  from  the  more  known  to  the  less  known  by 
gradual,  consecutive,  coherent,  and  systematic  steps  and 
stages.  In  fact,  it  is  hardly  too  much  to  say  that,  from 
the  point  of  view  of  practical  work  in  educating,  this 
principle  must  always  take  the  first  place  as  the  con- 
trolling element  in  the  organisation  of  method. 

The  ability  to  discriminate  or  realise  diflPerences  be- 
tween two  or  more  experiences  is  necessary  for  the  mere 
possibility  of  knowledge ;  for,  an  absolute  similarity  of 
mental  effect  from  all  impressions  would  mean  an  un- 
known, and  unknowable,  world.  Similarly,  the  power 
to  recognise,  or  assimilate,  that  is,  to  realise  similarity 
or  likeness,  is  absolutely  essential  to  the  actual  building 
up  of  knowledge:  for,  meaning  and  significance  come 
from  the  relating  of  the  new  to  the  old,  the  presentative 
to  the  re-presentative.  Thus,  difference  is,  logically, 
most  important  for  the  beginnings  of  knowledge,  and 
assimilation  for  the  actual  forming  and  developing  of  it. 
The  same  kind  of  thing  is  true,  in  a  physical  sense,  in 


GENERAL  FBINCIPLES  337 

the  case  of  all  forms  of  organic  life  :  there  must  be  a 
proper  power  of  selection  and  assimilation. 

A  special  capacity  for  particular  kinds  of  assimilation 
and  discrimination  is  the  active  element  in  the  develop- 
ment of  individuality.  Dr.  Bain  says:  ^'This  is  the 
deepest  foundation  of  disparity  of  intellectual  character, 
as  well  as  of  variety  in  likings  and  pursuits.  If,  from 
the  beginning,  one  man  can  interpolate  five  shades  of 
discrimination  of  colour  where  another  can  feel  but  one 
transition,  the  careers  of  the  two  men  are  foreshadowed 
and  will  be  widely  apart."  But  this  view  must  not  be 
pressed  too  far,  for  some  of  the  highest  powers  are  the 
latest  in  significant  development.  As  a  rule,  we  should 
have  a  sufl&ciently  general  survey  of  a  more  or  less  fully 
developed  individual  before  making  anything  like  final 
judgments  on  such  matters. 

Two  of  the  most  essential  conditions  for  impressing 
differences  are  juxtaposition,  and  intensity  of  stimulus. 
Unlike  things  placed  side  by  side  cannot  but  compel 
attention  to  the  fact  of  unlikeness,  if  the  elements  in- 
volved are  sufficiently  powerful  as  stimuli  to  command 
the  attention.  At  the  same  time,  however,  the  intensity 
of  the  stimuli  must  not  be  too  great,  or  the  effects  of 
contrast  will  be  lost  in  the  state  of  surprise,  or  wonder. 

The  condition  of  co-presentation  is  of  great  impor- 
tance, because  representative  elements  are  seldom  so  full 
and  vivid  as  presentative  ones,  and  the  points  of  con- 
trast are,  therefore,  much  less  sharply  defined  if  there 
is  any  considerable  interval  between  the  presentations 
of  the  things  compared. 

As  a  rule,  the  intensity  of  the  stimuli  involved  should 

Y 


338  EDUCATION 

be  of  an  average  degree,  and  only  when  there  is  some 
difficulty  in  getting  the  learner  to  grasp  the  differences 
should  extreme  or  exaggerated  forms  be  made  use  of. 
If  there  is  great  facility  and  accuracy  in  discrimination, 
then  the  intensity  of  the  stimuli  may  be  somewhat 
below  the  average,  for  the  purpose  of  calling  forth  an 
even  keener  exercise  of  the  power. 

Dr.  Bain  thus  illustrates  the  use  of  juxtaposition : 
"  We  compare  two  notes  by  sounding  them  in  close  suc- 
cession ;  two  shades  of  colour  by  placing  them  side  by 
side ;  two  weiglits  by  holding  them  in  the  two  hands, 

and  attending  to  the  two  feelings  by  turns For 

mere  length  we  lay  the  two  things  alongside ;  so  for  an 
angle.  For  number  we  can  place  two  groups  in  con- 
tiguous rows — three  by  the  side  of  four  or  five — ^and 

observe  the  surplus Sometimes  there  is  a  strong 

and  overpowering  similarity,  with  a  small  and  uncon- 
spicuous  difference,  as  in  our  cyphers  (compare  3  and  5), 
and  in  the  letters  of  our  alphabet  (C  and  G),  and  still 
more  in  the  Hebrew  alphabet.  For  such  comparisons, 
the  difiRerence,  such  as  it  is,  needs  to  be  very  clearly 
drawn  or  even  exaggerated.  Another  method  is  to  have 
models  of  the  same  size  to  lay  over  one  another." 

But  beside  juxtaposition  and  intensity  there  are  two 
other  conditions  which  greatly  assist  in  making  discri- 
mination complete  and  permanent.  These  are  repetition, 
and  multiplication,  of  instances.  Such  are  in  fact 
nothing  more  than  the  application  of  the  principle  of 
repetition. 

Each  of  the  above  four  conditions  applies  with  equal 
force  to  the  impressing  of  points  of  similarity  upon  the 


GENERAL   PRINCIPLES  339 

mind ;  in  addition  to  which  the  laws  of  association  also 
apply.  Further,  the  principle  of  preparation  is  of  very 
great  assistance. 

Discrimination  is  a  form  of  analysis,  for  it  separates 
the  diflerent  elements  of  experience  from  each  other ; 
and  assimilation  is  a  form  of  synthesis^  for  it  combines 
in  thought  those  experiences  which,  as  a  whole,  are  like 
each  other.  When  both  activities  are  applied  to  the 
parts  and  details  of  one  and  the  same  object,  the 
separating  and  combining  processes  are  more  clearly 
seen.  Hence,  wherever  there  is  discrimination  and  assi- 
milation there  is  analysis  and  synthesis :  and  wherever 
there  is  analysis  and  synthesis  there  is  discrimination 
and  assimilation. 

Throughout  the  whole  range  of  thought,  therefore, 
the  principle  of  analysis  and  synthesis  is  always  active. 
But,  whilst  analysis  can  never  do  more  than  'clearly 
realise  each  separate  element  of  a  whole,  though  this 
involves  great  advance  in  power  with  regard  to  the  more 
complex,  and  the  purely  rational,  wholes,  synthesis  pro- 
gresses from  the  recombining  of  the  details  of  a  given 
whole,  as  given  by  analysis,  to  the  selecting  of  certain 
elements  given  in  various  experiences,  and  the  com- 
bining of  these  into  wholes  which  have  never  before 
been  met  with  in  the  individuars  own  experiences. 

Synthesis  is,  therefore,  said  to  be  reproductive  or 
constructive.  The  former  is  inevitable ;  but  there  must 
first  be  a  familiarity  with,  and  power  and  skill  in,  repro- 
ductive synthesis,  before  constructive  synthesis  is  likely 
to  be  either  possible  or  sound.  Also,  a  store  of  material 
gained  by  previous  efforts  must  have  been  acquired. 


340  EDUCATION 

No  constructive  effort  is  possible  unless  there  be  some- 
thing to  construct  from. 

It  is  this  power  of  constructive  synthesis  which 
characterises  the  most  capable  and  original  minds.  In 
the  higher  regions  of  thought,  we  speak  of  it  as  the 
power  of  inventiveness,  discovery,  original  investigation 
and  research,  ability,  talent,  or  genius.  As  a  matter  of 
fact,  these  powers  are  shown  very  early  in  an  individual's 
life,  in  very  modest  ways.  Quite  young  children  can 
invent  and  discover,  so  far  as  their  own  knowledge  is 
concerned.  In  other  words,  if  they  have  obtained  an 
intelligent  mastery  of  reproductive  synthesis,  they 
should  be  able,  in  however  humble  a  way,  to  do  some- 
thing in  the  way  of  constructive  synthesis. 

At  every  stage  in  the  child's  career  he  should  pass 
from  the  imitative  to  the  initiative  mastery  of  a  subject, 
or  part  of  a  subject  This  is  the  most  valuable  evidence 
of  intelligent  self-activity,  and  shows  that  the  educative 
processes  have  been  entirely  successful.  It  is,  therefore, 
most  desirable  that  the  educator  should  encourage  and 
stimulate  such  synthetic  efforts  on  the  part  of  the 
learner.  They  should  be  looked  upon  as  the  crowning 
point  of  each  step  and  stage  of  development,  and  proper 
provision  for  securing  good  results  in  them  should  be 
made. 

Dr.  Sully  says :  **  Children  find  out  many  new.  com- 
binations of  movements  for  themselves.  The  mere 
pleasure  of  doing  a  thing,  and  of  overcoming  a  difficulty, 
is  an  ample  reward  for  many  an  effort  in  practical  con- 
struction. Such  activity  is,  moreover,  closely  connected 
with  the  impulse  of  curiosity,  the  desire  to  find  out 


GENERAL   PRINCIPLES  341 

about  things,  their  structure  and  less  obvious  qualities. 
In  this  way  practical  invention  assists  in  the  discovery 
of  facts  and  truths.  A  considerable  part  of  a  boy's 
knowledge  of  things  is  thus  gained  experimentally, 
that  is  to  say,  by  means  of  actively  dividing,  joining 
together,  and  otherwise  manipulating  objects." 

Children  show  an  inventive  activity  very  early  in  life. 
Darwin  says  that  one  of  his  children,  when  he  was  just  a 
year  old,  invented  the  word  "  mum  "  as  a  name  for  all 
kinds  of  food.  He  further  invented  additional  sounds 
for  particular  kinds  of  food,  calling  sugar  **  shu-mum." 
All  teachers  know  how  all  too  apt  children  are  to 
invent  such  verbal  forms  as  *'  go-ed,"  *'  come-d/'  and  the 
like. 

There  sl^ould,  however,  be  nothing  like  asking  the 
pupils  to  make  bricks  without  straw.  They  should  have 
been  previously  well  furnished  with  the  raw  material, 
and  such  simple  suggestions  and  indications  as  will  make 
the  first  trials  fairly  easy,  and  likely  to  be  successful. 
Discouragement  in  little  things  should  be  avoided  as 
far  as  possible,  or  encouragement  for  bigger  efforts  will 
be  hard  to  provide. 

Some  such  method  as  the  following  might  be  used. 
When  certain  kinds  of  exercises  are  quite  familiar  to 
the  learner,  let  him  be  required  to  reproduce  two  or 
more  of  them,  selected  by  the  educator  with  a  view  to 
the  further  treatment  of  them.  Then,  after  being  given 
what  suggestions  and  help,  if  any,  are  thought  to  be 
necessary,  the  pupil  should  be  asked  to  combine  the 
two  exercises  into  an  intelligible  and  consistent  whole. 
Thus  two  anecdotes  might  be  worked  up  into  one ;  two 


342  EDUCATION 

designs  in  drawing  made  into  a  single  design ;  or  two 
sums  combined  in  one  problem ;  the  materials  in  each 
case  being  given  by  the  reproduced  exercises.  Next, 
the  pupil  should  try  to  frame  other  such  combinations, 
being  guided  by  the  model  already  worked  out.  This 
will  involve  his  selecting  his  own  material,  and  making 
the  combination  by  himself.  Finally,  he  should  be  in- 
vited to  attempt  something  involving  quite  dififerent 
sorts  of  materials,  and  another  kind  of  combination 
— "  all  out  of  his  own  head,"  as  children  say. 

Very  surprising  results  are  sometimes  obtained  by 
giving  school  children  the  opportunity  to  do  this  kind 
of  work,  although  absolutely  no  previous  specific  prepara- 
tion for,  or  effort  in,  it  has  been  made.  Most  difficult 
arithmetical  problems,  in  the  various  rules  they  have 
been  taught,  are  invented  and  worked  by  small  boys. 
Excellent  original  stories  are  written  by  young  scholars, 
and  very  happy  designs  in  colour  and  geometrical  out- 
lines are  made  by  them.  Some  very  meritorious  and 
instructive  examples  of  such  are  published  in  the 
**  School  Field  Magazine,"  1890-94  (Longmans),  which 
gives  specimens  of  the  actual  work  done  by  children  in 
an  experimental  school  organised  by  Mr.  Sargeant. 

Such  products  are  of  the  highest  possible  educational 
value,  for  they  represent  the  development  of  the  mind 
up  to  creative  ability,  and  they  express  the  individuality 
of  the  learner.  They  may  be  small  and  simple  things 
in  themselves,  but,  if  obtained  at  the  appropriate  periods, 
they  are  great  results,  and  full  of  possibilities  for  the 
future. 

A  German  writer,  named   Lazarus,  has  well  said: 


GENERAL   PRINCIPLES  343 

"  Neither  discoveries  nor  inventions  are  made  in  the 
school ;  neither  are  discoveries  or  inventions  brought  to 
maturity  there,  but  the  pupils  should  be  so  trained  as 
to  discover  what  has  already  been  discovered,  to  in- 
vestigate what  has  been  investigated,  to  seek  for  what 
has  been  found."  Obviously  the  first  part  of  this  is 
only  true  from  the  point  of  view  of  the  adult,  for  to  the 
child  there  is  a  real  discovery ;  but  the  central  truth, 
that  children  must  realise  and  master  the  methods  of 
discovery  and  investigation,  is  the  important  point. 
Only  so  can  they  fully  and  intelligently  realise  and 
appreciate  the  work  of  original  investigators  and  dis- 
coverers. That  is  what  the  poet  means  when  he  says : 
"  What  you  have  inherited  from  your  fathers,  you 
must  earn  again  in  order  to  possess  it "  (Lange). 

Moreover  this  eflfort  after  constructive  command  is  a 
native  tendency  of  the  child,  which  gives  it  very  much, 
and  great,  pleasure.  The  late  Professor  Tyndall,  speak- 
ing of  his  experiences  as  a  teacher,  says  :  "  It  was  often 
my  custom  to  give  the  boys  their  choice  of  pursuing 
their  propositions  in  the  book,  or  of  trying  their 
strength  at  others  not  to  be  found  there.  Never  in  a 
single  instance  have  I  known  the  book  to  be  chosen.  I 
was  ever  ready  to  assist  when  I  deemed  help  needful, 
but  my  ofTers  of  assistance  were  habitually  declined. 
The  boys  had  tasted  the  sweets  of  intellectual  conquest 

and  demanded  victories  of  their  own Some  of 

the  most  delightful  hours  of  my  existence  have  been 
spent  in  marking  the  vigorous  and  cheerful  expansion 
of  mental  power,  when  appealed  to  in  the  manner  I 
have  described." 


344  EDUCATION 

Mr.  Page,  an  American  writer,  says  of  a  class  of  boys 
about  fourteen  years  of  age :  "  A  diflficult  problem  in 
algebra  had  been  before  the  class  for  a  day  or  two, 
when  I  suggested  giving  them  some  assistance.  'Not 
yet,  sir,'  was  the  exclamation  of  nearly  alL  S"or  shall 
I  forget  the  expression  that  beamed  from  the  face  of 
one,  when — forgetting  in  his  elation  the  school  pro- 
prieties— ^he  cried  out '  I've  got  it !  I've  got  it ! '  It  was 
a  proud  moment  for  him.  He  felt  his  own  power  as  he 
had  never  done  before.  Nor  was  I  less  gratified  to  find 
that  his  fellows  were  still  unwilling  to  be  told  the 
method  of  his  solution.  Next  day  a  large  proportion 
brought  the  example  correctly  solved,  the  working 
giving  evidence  of  originality." 

The  special  value  of  such  self-development  is  thus 
described  by  Mr.  Herbert  Spencer  :  **  In  the  first  place, 
it  guarantees  a  vividness  and  permanency  of  impression 
which  the  usual  methods  can  never  produce.  Any 
piece  of  knowledge  which  the  pupil  has  himself 
acquired — any  problem  which  he  has  himself  solved, 
becomes,  by  virtue  of  the  conquest,  much  more 
thoroughly  his  than  it  could  else  be.  The  preliminary 
activity  of  mind  which  his  success  implies,  the  concen- 
tration of  thought  necessary  to  it,  and  the  excitement 
consequent  on  his  triumph,  conspire  to  register  the 
facts  in  his  memory  in  a  way  that  no  mere  information 
heard  from  a  teacher,  or  read  in  a  school-book,  can  be 
registered. 

*'  Even  if  he  fails,  the  tension  to  which  his  faculties 
have  been  wound  up,  insures  his  remembrance  of  the 
solution  when  given  to  him,  better  than  half-a-dozen 


GENEBAL  PBINCIPLES  345 

repetitions  would.  Observe,  again,  that  this  discipline 
necessitates  a  continuous  organisation  of  the  knowledge 
he  acquires.  It  is  in  the  very  nature  of  facts  and 
inferences  assimilated  in  this  normal  manner,  that  they 
successively  become  the  premises  of  further  conclusions 
— the  means  of  solving  further  questions.  The  solution 
of  yesterday's  problem  helps  the  pupil  in  mastering 
to-day's."^ 

Dr.  Bain  speaks  of  ''  a  tenfold  power  in  the  feeling 

of  organisation Now,  it  is  one  of  the  delicate 

arts  of  an  accomplished  instructor,  to  lay  before  the 
pupils  a  set  of  facts  pointing  to  a  conclusion,  and  to 
leave  them  to  draw  the  conclusion  for  themselves. 
Exactly  to  hit  the  mean  between  a  leap  too  small  to 
have  any  merit,  and  one  too  wide  for  the  ordinary 
pupil,  is  a  fine  adjustment  and  a  great  success." 

As  Froebel  says :  "  A  child  between  one  and  three 
years  old,  playing  alone,  will  first  examine  shape  and 
colour  of  an  object  which  it  can  lay  hold  of  and  handle ; 
will  try  its  solidity ;  will  then  endeavour  to  take  it  to 
pieces,  at  least  to  alter  its  form  so  as  to  detect  new 
qualities  in  it,  and  put  it  to  new  uses.  This  done,  it  is 
seen  trying  either  to  reunite  the  parts  or  to  arrange 
them  into  a  fresh  whole."  There  is  probably  some 
exaggeration  here  in  the  suggestion  of  a  definite  design 
to  make  a  new  whole ;  but  there  is  certainly  much 
more  of  implicit  purpose  in  what  is  too  often  ignorantly 
called  the  mischievous  destructiveness  of  a  child,  than 
the  ordinary  observer  is  likely  to  detect. 

Childish  activities  thus  illustrate  what  we  must 
always  insist  upon :  the  fact  that  analysis    and  syn- 


346  EDUCATION 

thesis  are  but  complementary  parts,  or  phases,  of  one 
complete  process  of  thought,  whether  the  thought  be 
superficial  or  profound.  In  every  implicit  complex 
percept  or  concept,  and  much  more,  therefore,  in  all 
that  are  explicit,  both  analysis  and  synthesis  have  taken 
place.  The  former  has  realised  and  discriminated  the 
separate  parts  and  details,  and  the  latter  has  combined 
them  into  a  self- consistent  whole.  In  every  judgment 
the  concepts  involved  are  first  thought  of  analytically, 
for  they  are  regarded  as  at  least  separate  and  distinct, 
however  much  they  may  resemble  each  other ;  and  are 
then  synthesised  into  the  intelligible  mental  whole  which 
we  call  a  judgment.  The  same  conditions  hold  as  to 
the  connecting  of  judgments  in  reasonings. 

This  truth  must  not  be  educationally  abused.  Whilst 
it  is  necessary  that  the  learner  should  form  ideas,  judg- 
ments, and  reasonings,  through  an  explicit  and  detailed 
use  of  analysis  and  synthesis,  so  as  to  obtain  the  neces- 
sary power,  skill,  and  facility,  for  doing  this  whenever 
it  is  desirable ;  yet  there  is  no  need  whatever  for  always 
proceeding  in  such  a  precise  way.  On  the  contrary,  we 
must  learn  to  economise  mental  strength  and  energy,  by- 
making  every  legitimate  short  cut  in  thought,  so  long  as 
such  are  based  upon  explicit  experiences  and  knowledge, 
and  we  have  the  power  of  making  the  process  explicit 
if  required. 

The  application  of  the  principle  of  analysis  and  syn- 
thesis in  the  region  of  pure  thought,  or  reasoning,  may- 
be shown  by  considering  a  first  lesson  on  grammar. 
This  should  be  about  the  simple  sentence,  for  that  is  the 
known  unit  from  which  the  unknown  technical  details 


GENERAL  PRINCIPLES  347 

are  best  derived.  The  force  of  the  educational  principle 
is  specially  well  shown  here,  because  we  realise  it  in 
grammatical  analysis.  By  asking  the  pupils  to  mention 
topics  to  be  talked  about,  a  column  of  subjects  can 
easily  be  obtained.  Then  they  should  be  requested  to 
say  something  about  each  of  these  subjects.  Thus  the 
predicates  are  provided,  and  complete  sentences  formed. 
Not  only  has  grammatical  analysis  thus  been  performed, 
under  the  guidance  of  the  teacher,  but  it  has  been  done 
by  way  of  synthesis,  and  the  learners  will  easily  ex- 
press the  full  synthesis  of  the  details  thus  arrived  at  in 
some  such  descriptive  definition  as :  a  sentence  consists 
of  two  parts,  something  which  is  spoken  of,  and  that 
which  is  said  about  it. 

It  is  always  thus.  The  very  fact  that  we  are,  as  a 
rule,  dealing  with  a  whole  which  must  always  remain  a 
whole,  makes  it  necessary  that  analysis  and  synthesis 
should  proceed  concurrently.  A  unit  becomes  a  unity, 
or  a  unity  becomes  a  more  detailed  and  complex  one, 
through  the  further  activity  of  thought  upon  mental 
wholes. 

This  principle  is  involved  in  the  maxims :  from  the 
known  to  the  unknown  :  from  the  simple  to  the  com- 
plex :  from  the  concrete  to  the  abstract :  and,  from  the 
general  to  the  particular.  Professor  Laurie  expresses  it 
in  the  following  practical  rules :  "  Teach  all  that  is 
complex  analytico-synthetically,  i,e.,  reduce  an  object 
to  its  elements,  and  then  build  it  up  again ;  practise 
pupils  in  the  analysis  of  complex  things  and  the  syn- 
thesis of  many  particulars  in  one  whole,  in  order  to 
train  to  exactness  of  conception  ;  teach  generalisations 


348  EDUCATION 

as  generalisations,  i.e.,  advance  from  the  particular  to 
the  general,  from  the  concrete  to  the  abstract ;  teach 
reasonings  as  reasonings,  i.e.,  get  the  pupil  to  make 
explicit  all  implicit  reasonings." 

An  example  of  causal  analysis  and  synthesis  will 
show  the  highest  application  of  the  principle.  Let  us 
ta'ke  the  case  in  which  we  wish  to  lead  up  to  the  in- 
ductive judgment  :  water  must  always  seek  its  own  level. 
This  is  to  be  arrived  at  through  observation,  experiment, 
analysis  (physical  and  mental),  and  judgment. 

Take  a  piece  of  wood,  a  handful  of  wool,  and  a  glass 
of  water.  Let  the  wool  and  wood  be  dropped,  and  the 
water  poured  on  the  ground.  Then  questions  should 
obtain  answers  which  express  the  fact  that  little,  if  any, 
change  of  shape  has  taken  place  in  the  first  two,  but  a 
very  great  deal  in  the  last.  Now  let  them  be  put  into  a 
vessel  with  holes  in  it,  smaller  that  either  the  size  of  the 
wood  or  wool.  The  wool  can  be  pushed  and  pulled 
through,  but  not  the  wood,  whilst  the  water  pushes  itself 
through.  Skilful  questioning  should  now  obtain  the 
judgment  that  water  moves  about  very  freely,  because 
its  parts  do  not  hold  together  like  those  of  the  wood  and 
wool.  This  gives  the  element  of  diflFerence,  in  the  sense 
of  the  logical  "method  of  difference,"  for  discovering 
causes. 

Next  let  the  water  be  poured  into  a  small  hollow 
india-rubber  ball.  Then,  if  a  pin  is  thrust  through  it 
in  various  places  all  round,  the  water  will  be  seen  to 
come  out.  Here,  again,  therefore,  the  water  is  found  to 
be  pushing  itself,  so  to  speak.  But  it  is  now  further 
seen  that  it  pushes  itself  in  all  directions. 


GENEKAL  PRINCIPLES  349 

Now  take  a  glass  vessel  of  the  shape  of  a  watering- 
pot,  with  a  telescopic  spout.  Let  the  spout  be  full 
out  at  first,  and  the  pot  gradually  filled  with  water. 
It  will  be  seen  that  some  of  the  water  is  pushed  up 
the  spout  until  it  is  level  with  that  in  the  pot. 
Pauses  should  be  made  to  show  this.  When  the  pot 
is  full,  then  let  the  telescopic  spout  be  gradually 
lowered  beyond  the  level  of  the  top  of  the  pot.  Then 
sufficient  water  will  be  pushed  out,  through  the 
shortened  spout,  to  establish  a  new  level.  And  so  the 
movement  will  go  on  with  each  lowering  of  the  spout. 

From  this  it  will  be  seen  that  the  level  is  always 
determined  by  the  limits  of  that  which  resists  the 
pressure  which  the  water  is  exerting  upon  itself;  in 
other  words,  the  water  will  keep  on  moving  itself  till 
something  stops  it,  and  this  will  only  be  when  the 
water,  as  a  body,  has  a  level  surface.  Therefore,  it  is 
clear,  from  what  is  thus  seen  of  the  nature  of  water, 
that  it  must  always  seek  its  own  level.  Of  course  the 
liquid  condition  is  taken  for  granted. 

Thus,  though  our  idea  of  water  has  remained 
throughout  as  a  mental  unit,  it  has  been  filled  in  with 
detail,  and  has  become  a  complex  unity,  through 
further  analysis  and  re-synthesis.  From  what  is  dis- 
covered of  its  practical  nature,  we  are  able  to  say  that 
water,  in  a  liquid  state,  must  always  and  everywhere, 
under  ordinary  conditions,  seek  its  own  level.  This 
is  a  judgment  as  to  cause  and  eflFect,  and  represents 
the  highest  form  of  rational  generalisation,  viz.,  causal 
induction.  It  has  been  arrived  at  through  concurrent 
perceptual  and  conceptual  reasonings. 


350  EDUCATION 

Many  interesting  problems  can  be  submitted  to  the 
learner  concerning  this  principle,  as  to  the  water 
supply  of  a  town,  the  working  of  canal  locks,  and  the 
making  of  fountains.  He  might  be  invited  to  invent 
a  toy  fountain,  if  he  has  obtained  the  necessary  tech- 
nical knowledge  and  manual  skill,  through  manual  in- 
struction classes,  or  otherwise. 

Few  would  deny  that  such  a  form  of  education  is 
likely  to  be  attractive  and  stimulating  to  the  indi- 
vidual, and  to  prove  effective  and  sound  in  drawing 
out,  strengthening,  sharpening,  and  polishing  the 
mental  powers. 

The  very  highest  value  of  the  principle  of  analysis 
and  synthesis  is  that  it  is  the  best  possible  training  for 
self- education,  in  that  it  gives  the  learner  right 
methods  of  work,  and  the  power  and  facility  in  apply- 
ing them. 

Mr.  Herbert  Spencer  urges  that  a  principle  "  which 
cannot  be  too  strongly  insisted  upon,  is,  that  in  educa- 
tion the  process  of  self-development  should  be  en- 
couraged to  the  uttermost.  Children  should  be  led  to 
make  their  own  investigations,  and  to  draw  their  own 
inferences.  They  should  be  told  as  little  as  possible, 
and  induced  to  discover  as  much  as  possible.  Humanity 
has  progressed  solely  by  self-instruction ;  and  that  to 
achieve  the  best  results,  each  mind  must  progress  some- 
what after  the  same  fashion,  is  continually  proved  by 
the  marked  success  of  self-made  men." 

In  further  support  of  this  he  points  out  that :  "  the 
all -important  knowledge  of  surrounding  objects  which 
a  child  gets  in  its  early  years,  it  got  without  help  .... 


GENERAL  PRINCIPLES  351 

the  child  is  self-taught  in  the  nse  of  its  mother 
tongue  ; "  and,  that  there  is  a  large  **  amount  of  that 
experience  of  life,  that  out-of-school  wisdom  which 
every  boy  gathers  for  himself."  He  reminds  his  readers 
of  "  the  unusual  intelligence  of  the  uncared-for  London 
gamiQ,  as  shown  in  whatever  directiou  his  faculties 
have  been  tasked,"  and  of  the  fact  that  "  many  minds 
have  struggled  up  unaided,  not  only  through  the 
mysteries  of  our  irrationally-planned  curriculum,  but 
through  hosts  of  other  obstacles  besides."  Therefore, 
he  says,  it  is  ^'a  not  unreasonable  conclusion,  that 
if  the  subjects  be  put  before  him  in  right  order 
and  right  form,  any  pupil  of  ordinary  capacity  will 
surmount  his  successive  difficulties  with  but  little 
assistance." 

Bousseau  is  not  less  emphatic  than  is  his  wont  about 
the  same  truth.  He  contends  that :  **  Educated  in  the 
spirit  of  our  principles,  accustomed  to  look  for  resources 
within  himself,  and  to  have  recourse  to  others  only 
when  he  finds  himself  really  helpless,  he  will  examine 
every  new  object  for  a  long  time  without  saying  a  word. 
He  is  thoughtful,  and  not  disposed  to  ask  questions. 
Be  satisfied,  therefore,  with  presenting  objects  at 
appropriate  times  and  in  appropriate  ways."  (Emile. 
Miss  Worthington's  translation). 

The  Principle  of  Ssrmbolism. — A  good  deal  has  been 
said  about  the  necessity  of  symbols  for  the  higher 
developments  of  thought.  Besides  this  fundamental 
place  of  language  in  the  progress  of  the  purely  rational 
powers,  we  have  to  take  into  consideration  the  fact 
that  language  is  the  great  channel  through  which  we 


352  EDUCATION 

bring  most  of  the  educative  influences  to  bear  upon 
the  mind. 

The  way  in  which  thought  is  carried  on  through 
verbal  signs — whether  spoken,  written,  or  only  thought 
— ^is,  perhaps,  best  shown  in  the  learning  of  a  new 
languaga  First  there  is  the  very  laborious  and  trouble- 
some work  of  getting  a  ready  and  accurate  association 
between  the  right  words  and  the  right  ideas.  The  ease 
with  which  a  person  goes  wrong  in  this  is  often  painfully 
apparent  when  we  hear  a  foreigner,  who  is  just  beginning 
to  learn  our  own  language,  try  to  speak  it,  but  very 
hard  to  realise  when  we  begin  to  speak  a  foreign 
langnaga  Genders  and  cases  are  apt  to  prove  especially 
provoking  in  this  respect. 

Another  point  worthy  of  notice  is  the  way  in  which 
we  very  slowly,  and  with  great  difficulty,  make  out  the 
meaning,  in  English,  of  a  foreign  language,  even  from 
printed  matter.  Much  more  difficult  is  it  when  the 
words  are  spoken.  We  find  ourselves  slowly  saying 
or  thinking  the  words,  one  by  one,  and  searching  for 
the  right  English  equivalents.  Later  on  this  is  done 
more  readily,  but  still  we  find  that  we  have  to  ex- 
plicitly think  out  the  exact  meaning.  If  we  wish  to 
speak  in  the  new  language,  the  details  of  the  process 
are  still  more  obvious.  We  think  in  English,  and 
slowly  translate  the  thought  mentally — probably  with 
grave  anxiety  as  to  the  words  and  their  right  order— 
and  then  try  to  speak  it. 

But,  finally,  there  arrives  the  happy  time  when,  as 
we  say,  we  are  able  to  think  in  the  language.  Now 
the  word  counters  are  all-sufficient»  for  their  separate 


GENEBAL  PRINCIPLES  353 

and  combined  values  are  so  familiar  and  well  under- 
stood that  they  literally  go  without  saying.  The  full 
meaning  is  conveyed  to  the  mind  by  a  mere  humed 
sight,  or  hearing,  of  the  thought  symbols.  Now  we 
can  realise  more  fully  the  value  of  words  for  thought. 

All  this  is  of  the  greatest  possible  significance  to 
the  educator,  for  to  the  child,  what  we  call  his  own 
language  is  not  his  until  he  has  acquired  it  in  the 
above  sense.  If  we  wish  to  convince  ourselves  of  this, 
we  can  easily  do  so  by  reading  a  piece  of  Carlyle  to  a 
small  child,  or  by  getting  some  friend  to  talk  to  us  in 
a  highly  technical  form  of  language,  which  we  have  no 
previous  knowledge  of,  and  observing  how  unmeaning 
it  all  is.  It  is  not  very  helpful  to  most  persons  to 
inform  them — in  fact  they  are  not  so  informed — that 
a  physiological  being  is  a  unit  and  unity  of  systematic 
anatomical  articulation. 

It  is  very  amusing  to  hear  an  Englishman  trying  to 
make  a  foreigner,  ignorant  of  English,  understand  what 
he  is  saying  to  him  in  English,  by  shouting  it  at  the 
top  of  his  voice,  under  the  impression  that  if  he  only 
hears  it  plainly  he  must  understand  it.  And  it  would 
be  equally  amusing  were  the  consequences  involved 
not  much  more  serious,  to  hear  a  teacher  doing  exactly 
the  same  kind  of  thing  with  his  pupils. 

We  may  safely  say  that  there  is  more  need  of  educa- 
tional system  and  gradation  in  the  development  of  the 
acquiring  and  using  of  language,  than  even  in 
knowledge-subjects  proper ;  for  the  sign  is  much  more 
likely  to  be  misleading  in  communication,  than  the 
thing  signified  in  experience.     Very  careful  attention 


354  EDUCATION 

must,  therefore,  be  given  to  this  subject  by  the  edu- 
cator. 

Rousseau  says,  in  his  characteristically  trenchant 
way :  "  I  do  not  disapprove  of  a  nurse's  amusing  the 
child  with  songs,  and  with  blithe  and  varied  tones.  But 
I  disapprove  of  her  perpetually  deafening  him  with  a 
multitude  of  useless  words,  of  which  he  understands 
only  the  tone  she  gives  them. 

**I  would  like  the  first  articulate  sounds  he  must 
hear  to  be  few  in  number,  easy,  distinct,  often  repeated. 
The  words  they  form  should  represent  only  material 
objects  which  can  be  shown  him.  Our  unfortunate 
readiness  to  content  ourselves  with  words  that  have 
no  meaning  to  us  whatever,  begins  earlier  than  we 
suppose 

**  Children  who  are  too  much  urged  to  speak  have  not 
time  sufficient  for  learning  either  to  pronounce  carefully 
or  to  understand  thoroughly  what  they  are  made  to  say. 
If,  instead,  they  are  left  to  themselves,  they  first 
practise  using  the  syllables  they  can  most  readily  utter; 
and  gradually  attaching  to  these  some  meaning  that 
can  be  gathered  from  their  gestures,  they  give  you 
their  own  words  before  acquiring  yours.  Thus  they 
receive  yours  only  after  they  understand  them.  Not 
being  urged  to  use  them,  they  notice  carefully  what 
meaning  you  give  them ;  and  when  they  are  sure  of 
this,  they  adopt  it  as  their  own." 

Let  us,  then,  first  briefly  review  the  development  of 
language  in  the  race,  to  see  what  it  has  to  teach  us 
concerning  the  forms  which  have  been  found  most 
suggestive  and  convenient.     We  have  already  treated 


GENERAL   PRINCIPLES  355 

somewhat  fully  of  the  general  nature  and  history  of  lan- 
guage, in  the  discussion  on  the  connection  between  ideas 
and  language.  It  may  be  helpful,  however,  to  add  a 
few  words  about  the  development  of  written  language. 

Written  language  is,  like  vocal  language,  purely 
imitative  in  its  earliest  forms.  Picture-writing  is  the 
first  kind  of  written  language.  Crude  outlines  of 
animals  are  found  among  the  historical  survivals  of  the 
stone  age.  These  in  time,  probably  later  than  the  stony 
age,  developed  into  a  connected  series  showing  the 
details  of  the  chase.  The  Esquimaux  of  to-day  covers 
his  weapons  with  outline  drawings  of  animals  and 
hunting  scenes.  The  Eed  Indian  developed  the  art  of 
picture  writing  to  very  great  precision  and  fulness. 
But  this  represents  great  progress  in  general,  as  well 
as  special,  development.  Some  aborigines  of  Australia 
were  found  to  be  unable  even  to  identify  any  draw- 
ing except  a  most  exaggerated  outline  of  a  man, 
in  which  the  head  was  drawn  very  much  too  large, 
proportionally. 

Following  this  form  would  come,  in  order  of  logical 
development,  such  forms  as  the  Egyptian  hieroglyphics, 
in  which  pictures  are  used  to  represent  syllables  or 
letters,  and  not  merely  the  objects  which  they  outline. 
Whether  or  no  these  preceded  the  simple  picture 
writing,  historically,  seems  to  be  an  open  question.  In 
any  case,  it  is  generally  agreed  that  alphabetic  writing 
is  derived  from  hieroglyphics.  Thus  from  the  purely 
imitative  comes  the  semi -conventional,  and  from  the 
semi-conventional  the  purely  conventional,  or  wholly 
arbitrary,  system  of  signs. 


356  EDUCATION 

It  is  very  instructive  to  notice  that  the  progress  which 
the  actual  history  of  the  language  suggests  is  on  exactly 
similar  lines  to  the  best  forms,  and  order,  actually  em- 
ployed by  intelligent  practical  teachers  to-day.  Thus 
the  language  has,  broadly,  followed  this  order  :  from  real 
objects  to  as  full  an  imitation  as  possible — by  gesture 
and  sounds — then  an  outline  imitation,  next  a  more  or 
less  conventional  sign,  and,  finally,  entirely  conventional 
signs.  So  the  practical  teacher  says,  first  use  the  real 
object,  if  possible,  in  teaching,  or  use  a  model  of  it — as 
close  an  imitation  as  may  be — if  not  a  model,  then  a  full 
or  an  outline  picture,  and,  finally,  talk  about  these  in 
words. 

So  we  find,  for  example,  that  the  following  way  of 
giving  first  lessons  in  reading  is  strongly,  and  rightly, 
favoured  by  good  teachers.  Let  a  model,  and  a  picture, 
of  a  man  be  shown  to  the  learner.  Then  ask  him  to 
name  them.  Draw  an  outline  figure  of  a  man  on  the 
black-board.  The  child  will  doubtless  recognise,  and 
name  it.  Then  write  the  word  man  beside  this  picture 
on  the  black-board.  Get  the  child  to  recognise  either 
of  the  three  symbols  in  any  order,  and  to  grasp  the  fact 
that  the  word  is  to  do  duty  for  the  pictures  in  suggest- 
ing the  idea  of  man  to  the  mind. 

Next,  clean  the  black-board,  and  ask  the  child  to 
speak  the  name  for  man.  Then  write  it  again  on  the 
black-board.  An  endeavour  should  be  made  to  get  the 
learner  to  tell  that,  previously,  the  teacher  wrote,  and  he 
spoke,  this  sign  as  a  name  for  the  object  man.  Further 
exercises  in  associating  the  written  sign  and  the  idea 
maj'  easily  be  invented.     Next  let  a  real  pan  be  shown 


GENERAL  PRINCIPLES  357 

— a  niniature  one,  which  should  not  be  regarded  as  a 
model.  The  same  process  of  obtaining  the  association 
of  the  word  sign  with  the  thing  signified  should  be 
gone  through ;  but  it  ought  to  be  possible  to  do  it  more 
quickly  and  briefly. 

Then  little  sentences  can  be  made ;  such  as :  This  is 
a  man ;  here  is  a  pan ;  a  man  and  a  pan ;  and  so  on. 
All  that  need  be  done  with  regard  to  the  smaller  words, 
at  present,  is  to  insist  upon  their  correct  association 
with  the  spoken  words.  Later  on  such  sentences  may 
be  expanded  by  setting  up  various  concrete  relations 
between  the  model  man  and  the  miniature  pan.  Let 
the  man  be  put  in  the  pan,  and  then  form  such 
sentences  as :  The  man  is  in  the  pan.  Is  the  man  in  the 
pan  ?  Yes,  the  man  is  in  the  pan.  Is  the  pan  in  the 
man  ?  No,  the  pan  is  not  in  the  man.  Of  course  a  good 
deal  of  talk  between  the  teacher  and  the  pupil  should 
lead  up  to,  and  involve,  the  construction  of  the 
sentences.  And  there  is  no  reason  why  they  should 
not  be  more  or  less  amusing. 

The  verb  "  can  "  should  next  be  introduced,  for  the 
purpose  of  giving  variety  to  the  sentences,  and  also 
because  it  carries  on  the  series  of  similar  words :  man, 
pan,  can;  thereby  exercising  visual  discrimination  as  well 
as  mental  assimilation.  And  so  a  truly  scientific  system 
of  word-building  is  realised,  and  can  be  carried  on 
indefinitely. 

Let  it  be  carefully  observed  that  the  above  is  here 
used  as  an  illustration  of  the  educational  manner  of 
acquiring  language,  and  not  an  example  of  a  first  read- 
ing lesson,  though  it  happens  that  the  two  coincide,  for 


358  EDUCATION 

all  reading  lessons  must  be,  to  a  greater  or  lesser  extent, 
language  lessons.  It  is  to  show  the  realisation  of  the 
evolutional  progress  from  experience  to  expression, 
through  ideas.  This  is  the  great  truth  for  the  educator 
to  realise,  that  words  have,  and  can  have,  no  meaning 
except  as  our  experiences  and  thought  give  us  a  content 
of  meaning  which  we  associate  with  them.  It  is  not 
very  likely  to  prove  helpful,  therefore,  to  give  words  to 
beginners  unless  we  first  give  them  the  experiences  and 
create,  or  arouse,  in  them  the  ideas  which  are  to  be 
associated  with  the  verbal  symbols. 

A  practically  simultaneous  development  of  ideas  and 
words  should,  as  a  rule,  take  place ;  that  is,  they  should 
keep  pace  with  each  other,  or  the  community  may 
incur  loss  with  regard  to  the  individual  who  has 
valuable  ideas,  but  is  unable  to  express  them ;  and  it 
may  also  suflfer  much  from  the  man  who  has  many 
expressions  and  few  ideas. 

In  connection  with  this  concurrent  development  of 
thought  and  language,  in  their  relation  to  each  other, 
there  are  two  practical  dangers  to  be  avoided,  viz.,  the 
giving  too  little  or  too  much  ideational  content  to 
words.  The  former  is  by  far  the  most  common  fault, 
but  the  latter  is  hardly  less  mischievous,  in  many 
respects,  when  it  occurs. 

Since  words  are  an  inseparable  part  of  the  knowledge 
of  adults,  it  is  too  often  taken  for  granted  by  them  that 
those  who  can  acquire  the  words  have  acquired  the 
kno^  ledge  they  represent.  The  absurdity  of  this  is 
apparent  when  it  is  critically  considered,  but,  unfor- 
tunately, it  is  just  this  consideration  which  is  ordinarily 


GENERAL   PRINCIPLES  359 

omitted.  A  very  little  child  would  as  readily  leam 
texts  of  scripture  in  the  original  Hebrew  or  Greek,  as 
in  English.  And  a  passage  from  the  Bevelations  would 
be  equally  unmeaning  to  it,  in  either  language. 

In  the  beginnings  of  the  use  of  language  the  learner 
should  need  a  word  before  it  is  supplied.  That  is,  there 
should  be  a  content  of  experience,  before  a  name  is 
given  to  it.  As  Madame  Necker  points  out :  "  When 
the  want  of  a  word  has  preceded  the  possession  of  it, 
the  child  can  apply  it  naturally  and  justly."  Later  on 
the  use  of  language  will,  by  enabling  the  individual  to 
more  clearly  analyse  his  ideas,  also  help  him  to  render 
them  clearer,  and  more  easy  to  relate  to  others. 
Herein  lies  the  true  basis  of  what  is  called  word- 
building. 

The  acquisition  of  a  large  number  of  terms,  expres- 
sions, verbal  formulae,  and  the  like,  which  express  know- 
ledge, without  the  full  and  systematic  acquiring  of  the 
perceptual  and  conceptual  experiences  which  constitute 
it,  we  call  **cram."  We  may  define  cram,  therefore, 
as :  the  acquiring  of  the  maximum  of  the  verbal  expres- 
sions of  knowledge,  with  the  minimum  of  intelligent 
content. 

Popular  ideas  about  what  is  called  cram  are,  as  a 
rule,  very  vague  and  confused.  If  we  accept  the  above 
definition,  we  shall  not  regard  rapid  learning  as 
necessarily  being  cram.  So  long  as  the  knowledge 
material  is  fully  presented,  received,  and  assimilated, 
true  educational  results  will  follow.  Of  course  the 
more  quickly  this  is  attempted  the  more  danger  there 
is  of  the  processes  and  products  being  incomplete,  and. 


360  EDUCATION 

therefore,  of  using  words  as  substitutes  for  ideas,  i.e., 
cram. 

Again,  to  learn  off  certain  lists  of  words  is  not 
necessarily  cram.  All  proper  names  are,  in  themselves, 
nothing  more  than  verbal  labels,  and,  therefore,  must 
be  known  as  such.  But,  of  course,  they  should 
always  be  intelligently  and  suggestively  associated 
with  things.  Also  there  is  a  beauty  of  the  verbal 
forms  in  which  thoughts  are  expressed,  as  in  poetry, 
and  to  learn  the  words,  as  such,  for  the  sake  of 
thfe  form,  is  not  cram.  But,  here,  again,  the  proper 
associations  must  be  secured,  for  form  without  matter 
is  barren. 

The  danger  of  overloading  a  word  with  ideas,  although 
not  a  very  common,  is  a  very  real  one.  Mr.  Quick 
rightly  points  out  that :  "  after  all,  though  we  may 
and  should  bring  the  young  in  connection  with  the 
objects  of  thought  and  not  with  words  merely,  we  must 
not  forget  that  the  scholastic  aspect  of  things  will  differ 
from  the  practical.  When  brought  into  the  schoolroom 
the  thing  must  be  divested  of  details  and  surroundings, 
and  used  to  give  a  conception  of  one  of  a  class.  The 
fir  tree  of  the  schoolboy  cannot  be  the  fir  tree  of  the 
woodcutter." 

Jacotot's  mistake  largely  consisted  in  trying  to  get  too 
many  ideas  into  too  few  worda  We  cannot  know 
everything  in  one  thing,  and  much  less  can  we  express 
it  in  one  word,  or  sentence.  As  there  are  shades  of 
difference  of  meanings  in  otherwise  similar  experiences, 
so  we  need  slight  differences  of  verbal  signs  which 
apply  to  the  same  kind  of  wholes.     There  are  signifi- 


GENERAL  PRINCIPLES  361 

cant  diflFerences  involved  in  describing  a  person  as  clever, 
talented,  able,  though  they  all  imply  a  similar  general 
capacity  of  mind. 

When  a  good  foundation  of  related  experience,  know- 
ledge, and  language,  has  been  secured,  then,  as  in  other 
subjects,  we  may  proceed  by  the  method  of  regressive 
progress.  Terms,  and  phrases,  may  be  given,  which 
have  certain  limitations  imposed  by  their  contexts,  and 
the  learner  required  to  find  the  proper  content  of  full 
meaning.  A  good  example  of  this  kind  of  work  is 
seen  in  the  interpretation  of  a  particular  passage  in  a 
chapter,  play,  or  treatise,  by  other  passages,  and  the 
general  purpose  and  meaning  of  the  whole. 

Only  by  carefully  determining  the  function  and 
powers  of  language  with  regard  to  such  points,  can  we 
hope  to  make  it  as  helpful  an  instrument  of  develop- 
ment as  the  nature  of  the  case  will  allow.  The 
primary  educational  purpose  of  language  is  to  aid  in 
developing  power,  not  in  storing  up  information. 
The  latter  comes  later. 

By  such  combinations  as  were  suggested  in  the  dis- 
cussion of  the  principle  of  analysis  and  synthesis,  the 
child's  language  should  be  made  as  fully  expressive  and 
self-interpretative  as  possible.  They  are  the  most  ex- 
plicit form  of  verbal  signs.  Thus,  if  we  take  one  indi- 
vidual from  a  group,  we  say  that  the  group  is  then  less 
one,  that  is,  without  one  which  was  previously  there.  So 
we  say  a  man  is  armless,  senseless,  homeless,  and  so  on, 
when  he  is  without  arms,  sense,  or  home.  In  this  way 
word  combinations  can  be  given  a  practically  real  content 
of  meaning,  from  the  beginning,  and  many  such  combi- 


362  EDUCATION 

nations  can  be  temporarily  made  use  of  to  assist  in  the 
easier  formation  of  exact  ideas. 

Our  language  is  very  sadly  unsystematic,  and,  there- 
fore, much  less  helpful  than  it  might  be,  in  many 
respects.  Writers  on  logic  have  discussed  this  topic 
and  have  suggested  certain  rules  for  the  formation  of  a 
more  philosophical  form  of  language,  whilst  scientists 
have  actually  carried  out  precise  systems  of  word-build- 
ing, in  framing  the  technical  names  for  their  sciences. 

Gesture  language  has  by  no  means  wholly  dis- 
appeared. A  Frenchman,  for  example,  uses  a  good 
deal  of  delicate  and  refined  gesture  language,  and  even 
the  phlegmatic  Englishman  indulges  in  his  "  nods  and 
becks  and  wreathed  smiles,"  as  means  of  expressing  his 
thoughts  and  feelings.  Frowns,  shrugs,  manual  threats, 
facial  movements,  and  the  like,  are  often  economical, 
and  very  expressive,  ways  of  indicating  our  ideas  about 
things.  It  is,  therefore,  essentially  educational  that 
little  children  should,  to  a  limited  extent,  be  taught  to 
express  facts  and  feelings  through  gestures,  as  they  do 
in  kindergarten  songs  and  games.  What  is  possible  in 
this  direction  is  well  shown  by  clever  actors,  who  can 
bring  tears  and  smiles  from  an  audience,  whilst  con- 
fining themselves  wholly  to  gesture  language,  or  dumb- 
show  as  it  is  called. 

Ordinary  thought  symbols — that  is,  words  in  the 
sense  in  which  we  have  been  speaking  of  them,  are 
often  themselves  symbolised,  as  in  the  use  of  such  a  form 
as  H,0,  which  is  equivalent  to  the  phrase :  a  compound 
of  hydrogen  and  oxygen,  in  the  proportion  of  two  parts 
of  hydrogen  to  one  of  oxygen.    Also  the  usual  form  of 


GENERAL   PRINCIPLES  363 

words  in  a  sentence  is  often  taken  to  imply  many  other 
sentences,  as  in  the  analogy :  A  man  with  a  mind  like 
an  inflated  balloon ;  which  may  mean  a  mind  which 
is  full  of  airy  nothings:  is  empty  of  solid  sense:  is 
light  and  frivolous :  is  very  little  under  control :  and 
so  on. 

Now,  such  forms  and  uses  of  language  are  both 
necessary  and  helpful,  because  they  are  economical,  and 
often  specially  vivid,  unmistakable,  and  full,  in  meaning. 
As  Dr.  Karl  Lange  says :  "  We  see  how  a  striking  figure, 
a  fitting  comparison,  often  transmits  understanding  of 
a  point  to  the  mind  like  lightning,  and  lends  to  con- 
cepts a  distinctness  that  could  not  be  reached  without 
the  help  of  concrete  ideas."  But  they  can,  as  a  rule, 
only  be  really  helpful  to  those  who  have  great  fami- 
liarity with,  and  command  over,  the  use  of  language. 
They  ought,  therefore,  to  come  late — at  least,  if  used 
to  any  considerable  amount — for  educational  purposes. 

No  greater  mistake  in  education  can  be  made  than 
to  take  it  for  granted  that  if  vivid,  attractive,  and 
accurate  verbal  descriptions  of  things  are  given  to 
learners,  then  there  wilj  inevitably,  or  even  generally, 
be  formed  in  them  the  ideas,  feelings,  and  knowledge 
which  are  possessed  by  the  speaker.  If  this  were  so, 
then  the  manufacture  of  phonographs  might  become 
the  greatest  educational  agency  of  this  century.  But 
it  is  not  so.  Ideas  can  be  put  before  the  mind,  but 
they  cannot  be  put  into  the  mind,  except  as  the  mind 
takes  them  in.  Words  only  express  knowledge-giving 
experience ;  they  neither  make  it  nor  give  it. 

More  will  be  said  about  the  principle  of  symbolism 


364  EDUCATION 

in  the  next  chapter  but  one,  after  we  have  considered 
more  fully  the  function  of  language  in  imparting  know- 
ledge. 

Some  General  Eemarks — There  are  connected  with 
this  chapter,  as  with  the  others,  many  points  which 
it  is  not  convenient  to  discuss  at  length,  owing  to  the 
great  increase  of  the  size  of  the  book  which  would 
result  For  example,  systems  of  mnemonics  and  of 
scientific  nomenclature  and  terminology,  might  have 
been  briefly  discussed  in  connection  with  the  principle 
of  symbolism;  though  the  two  last  belong  more 
properly  to  the  treatment  of  education  from  the  point 
of  view  of  logic.  But  such  points,  and  many  others, 
may  be  regarded  as  problems  to  be  worked  out  by  the 
student  himself. 

The  inter-relation  of  the  principles  set  forth  in  this 
chapter  with  those  previously  described  should  be  care- 
fully considered.  The  connection  between  the  principle 
of  symbolism  and  that  of  pleasure  has  been  suggested 
in  reference  to  the  beauty  of  verbal  forms.  A  more 
ordinary  instance  of  it  is  seen  in  the  keen  enjoyment 
which  children  show  in  listening  to  graphic  and 
attractive  verbal  descriptions,  well-told  stories,  and  the 
like. 

Let  us  again  quote  the  testimony  of  practical  teachers 
in  support  of  the  principles  just  discussed.  Plato, 
when  speaking  of  the  education  of  youths  for  citizen- 
ship, says:  "And  when  they  have  made  a  good  begin- 
ning in  play,  and  by  the  help  of  music  have  gained  the 
habit  of  good  order,  then  this  habit  of  order,  in  a 
manner  how  unlike  the  lawless  play  of  others!    will 


GENERAL   PRINCIPLES  865 

accompany  them  in  all  their  actions  and  be  a  principle 
of  growth  to  them,  and  if  there  be  any  fallen  places  in 
the  state  will  raise  them  up  again.  Thus  educated, 
they  will  invent  for  themselves  any  lesser  rules  which 
their  predecessors  have  altogether  neglected.*'  Ho 
thus  clearly  recognises  inventiveness  as  the  crown  of 
educational  development. 

Mr.  H.  G.  Wells,  in  a  lecture  on  science,  teaching, 
says:  "Instruction  in  physics  and  chemistry  should 
finally  take  the  form  of  lessons  in  explanation  of  an 
experiment  or  group  of  related  experiments,  and 
exercises  upon  the  lessons.  The  full  importance  of 
these  experiments  should  be  elucidated  by  questions. 
The  pupils  should  draw  the  apparatus  and  describe 
the  experiment  orally,  and  should  set  down  precisely 
what  has  been  seen  and  what  is  to  be  inferred.  They 
should  also  perform  experimental  work,  involving 
measurements  and  computation,  and  farther  illustrating 
the  principles  evolved,  and  should  be  called  upon  to 
imagine  and  describe  the  laws  they  had  already  become 
familiar  with  under  new  conditions."  Herein  is  con- 
tained a  clear  and  complete  application  of  the  principle 
of  analysis  and  synthesis. 

Professor  L.  0.  Miall  in  an  article  on  "  Finding  out 
and  being  told,"  says :  "  When  the  children  have  been 
cutting  out  paper,  or  putting  sticks  together,  the 
teacher  will  not  say :  *  That  side  is  too  long  or  too  short.' 
He  will  point  out  that  there  is  something  wrong,  and 
encourage  the  child  to  discover  what  it  is.  When  a 
model  is  to  be  drawn,  he  will  not  begin  by  prescribing 
the  size  of  the  drawing,  but  will  inquire,  together  with 


366  EDUCATION 

the  chfld,  whether  the  first  attempt  is  convenient  in 
point  of  size." 

Again,  the  Hon.  Rev.  E.  Lyttleton,  in  his  contribution 
to  "  Thirteen  Essays  on  Education,"  remarks,  respecting 
the  teaching  of  Latin  syntax :  "  Surely  it  would  not  be 
impossible  for  boys  to  be  given  carefully  graduated 
examples  of  certain  constructions,  and  led  to  discover 
the  rules  exemplified,  and  to  put  them  first  into  his 
own  words,  then,  for  convenience,  into  the  technical 
phraseology." 

Of  the  need  for  a  mental  content  being  joined  to  all 
verbal  forms,  as  the  principle  of  symbolism  requires, 
Mr.  Quick  speaks  in  very  definite  terms.  He 
says :  "  Boys'  minds  are  frequently  dwarfed,  and 
their  interest  in  intellectual  pursuits  blighted,  by 
the  practice  of  employing  the  first  years  of  their 
school-life  in  learning  by  heart  things  which  it  is 
quite  impossible  for  them  to  understand  or  care  for. 
Teachers  set  out  by  assuming  that  little  boys  cannot 
understand  anything,  and  that  all  we  can  do  with  them 
is  to  keep  them  quiet  and  cram  them  with  forms  which 
will  come  in  useful  at  a  later  stage. 

"  When  the  boys  have  been  taught  on  this  system  for 
two  or  three  years,  their  teacher  complains  that  they 
are  stupid  and  inattentive,  and  that  so  long  as  they  can 
say  a  thing  by  heart  they  never  trouble  themselves  to 
understand  it.  In  other  words,  the  teacher  grumbles 
at  them  for  doing  precisely  what  they  have  been  taught 
to  do,  for  repeating  words  without  any  thought  of  their 
meaning." 

Mr.  Thring  forcibly  indicates  the  after  efiects  of  a 


GENERAL   PRINCIPLES  367 

non-observance  of  the  principle  in  the  following  passage : 
'*  As  long  as  the  great  majority  of  educated  people  do 
not  know  the  precise  meaning  of  their  own  language, 
when  they  use  it,  the  confusion  and  muddle  in  public 
and  private  life  must  be  as  great  as  it  is.  A  man  who 
knows  the  real  meaning  of  his  own  words  will  not  use 
them  ambiguously  unless  he  is  a  knave ;  and  if  he  is 
a  knave,  an  audience  accustomed  to  study  thought  in  its 
process  of  taking  shape  in  words  will  detect  his  knavery. 
At  present  words  have  absurd  power  because  they 
are  swallowed  whole."  (Theory  and  Practice  of 
Teaching.) 


CHAPTEE  VIII. 

THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  KNOWLEDGE 

We  have  already  said  that  knowledge  consists  of  more 
or  less  organised  judgments,  or  a  store  of  truths  known 
as  truths.  We  now  seek  to  make  more  explicit  the 
nature  and  growth  of  knowledge. 

Sources  of  Knowledge.  —  Herbart  says :  "  Knowledge 
imitates  what  lies  before  it  in  idea  ...  In  know- 
ledge there  is  an  antithesis  between  the  thing  and  the 
idea.  .  .  .  [Knowledge]  is  always  at  its  beginning. 
Receptivity  is  as  becoming  in  the  man  as  in  the  boy. " 
Herein  is  implied  the  inner  and  outer  elements  of 
knowledge ;  the  subjective  and  objective  elements,  or 
the  physical  and  mental,  as  they  are  often  called. 
Also  there  is  a  definite  recognition  of  the  fact,  which 
we  have  so  often  insisted  upon,  viz. ,  that  the  same  prin- 
ciples of  education,  though  in  somewhat  dififerent  pro- 
portions, are  applicable  to  all  individuals,  whatever  be 
the  age  of  the  learner.  "  Knowledge,  in  the  wider 
sense,  comprehends  both  cognition,  which  rests  on 
perception  (and  on  the  evidence  transmitting  percep- 
tions of  which  we  are  ignorant),  and  also  .  .  .  [that] 
which  is  attained  by  thinking  "    (Ueberweg).     This 


THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  KNOWLEDGE  369 

passage  recognises  the  element  of  direct  intuition  as 
a  source  of  knowledge,  and  also  that  of  reflective 
thought  Both  of  these  have  been  constantly  referred 
to  in  previous  discussions. 

Besides  these  two  original  sources  of  knowledge, 
there  is  what  we  may  call  a  fundamental  channel  of 
knowledge  arising  out  of  the  existence  of  language, 
viz.,  communication.  This  also  has  been  already 
referred  to. 

It  may  be  said,  therefore,  that  knowledge  comes  to 
us  in  three  ways,  viz. ,  through  intuition,  reflection,  and 
communication ;  the  ultimate  basis  of  all  three  being 
experience.  We  will  discuss  each  of  these  in  some 
detail. 

1.  IntaitioiL  —  Much  has  already  been  said  as  to  the 
nature  of  intuition.  In  referring  to  the  fundamental 
nature  of  the  simplest  forms  of  knowing,  we  have 
really  dealt,  in  general  terms,  with  the  fact  of  in- 
tuition. We  have  said  that  a  living  mind  is  bound 
to  react  to  stimuli  which  act  upon  it,  in  some  definite 
and  significant  manner,  because  of  its  nature  as  mind. 
For  example,  the  general  meaning  and  value  for  the 
mind  of  each  sensation,  as  to  whether  it  is  pleasurable 
or  painful  —  i.  e, ,  agreeable  or  disagreeable  —  must  be 
realised  in  the  case  of  the  very  earliest  sensations ; 
or  there  is  no  reason  why  the  millionth  should  be  so 
realised. 

Similarly  we  must  know,  in  however  vague  and 
indefinite  a  way,  the  general  value  and  significance  of  a 
great  many  other  experiences,  on  the  first  occasion  of 
their  happening  to  us  in  definite  form,  or  we  shall  never 

2  a 


370  EDUCATION 

know  them.  There  can  be  no  reference  to  and  com- 
parison with,  even  in  an  implicit  sense,  the  results  of 
previous  experiences,  in  the  very  beginning  of  life. 

It  is  these  first  cognitions  which  are  included  under 
intuition.  Intuition  may,  therefore,  be  defined  as  :  the 
direct  or  immediate  mental  realisation  of  the  essential 
value  of  an  experience.  By  "  direct  or  immediate  "  we 
mean  without  reference  to  previous  experience  or 
knowledge.  Of  course  the  word  intuition  is  now  used 
in  its  very  widest  sense,  so  as  to  apply  to  all  kinds  of 
experiences.  The  intuition  of  things  —  or  of  thingness, 
as  it  might  be  put  —  as  dealt  with  in  treating  of  percepts, 
is  only  one  form  of  intuition. 

This  original  apprehension  of  the  significance  of  an 
experience  does  not  in  the  least  include,  or  exclude, 
that  fuller  content  of  meaning  which  is  given  to  the 
same  kind  of  experience,  when  knowledge  and  thought 
have  developed.  We  must  be  able  to  distinguish  be- 
tween light  and  darkness  at  the  first ;  but  light  cannot, 
to  begin  with,  mean  what  it  will  mean  when  we  have  a 
good  knowledge  of  the  science  of  optics. 

Since  all  our  experiences  are  included  under  the 
mainly  sensuous  or  the  mainly  rational  kind,  we  may 
likewise  divide  intuitions  into  two  classes,  viz. ,  sense 
intuitions  and  rational  intuitions.  As  we  have  said,  all 
the  primary  elements  of  knowledge  of  the  physical 
details  which  are  involved  in  a  percept,  and  which  are 
due  to  the  sensations,  as  such,  are  immediate  or  direct, 
i.  e,,  they  are  sense  intuitions.  Thus  the  eyes  must 
enable  the  mind  to  judge  at  once  whether  an  object  is 
white  or  black ;  the  muscles  of  the  hands  must  indicate 


THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  KNOWLEDGE  371 

whether  it  be  hard  or  soft ;  the  sense  of  touch  must  guide 
the  mind  as  to  whether  it  is  rough  or  smooth ;  and  so 
on.     All  these  are  matters  of  sense  intuition. 

"  The  sense-perceptions  work  together  to  assist  us  to 
a  knowledge  of  the  outer  world,  of  which  lights  and 
colours,  noises  and  musical  sounds,  smells  and  tastes, 
degrees  of  warmth,  hardness,  and  roughness,  are  to  be 
regarded  as  the  elements.  Our  perceptions  of  the  same 
external  thing,  gained  through  the  different  senses, 
come  together  in  our  consciousness  into  a  whole,  or 
total  perception,  of  which  the  sight-perception  takes 
its  central  place,  hence  the  name  intuition. 

"  Thus,  in  the  sense-perception  (intuition)  of  common 
salt,  for  example,  are  included  the  whitish  colour,  the 
hexahedral  form,  the  peculiar  taste,  the  rough,  hygros- 
copic feeling,  and  the  peculiar  crackling  when  pressed 
together. **     (Lindner,  Empirical  Psychology.) 

All  such  intuitions  necessarily  involve  a  purely 
intellectual  element  —  that  of  meaning  or  significance 
—  but  in  so  far  as  this  is  inseparably  bound  up  with  the 
total  complex  we  may  regard  it  as  included  in  the  term 
sense  intuition.  But  there  are  cases  in  which  it  is 
as  necessary  for  this  element  to  act  separately,  in  an 
intuitive  manner.  If  the  higher  self-conscious,  reflec- 
tive, mental  life  is  to  exist  at  all  there  must  be  a 
spontaneous  beginning  of  it. 

We  find  that,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  such  purely  mental 
intuitions  are  made.  The  mind  intuits,  or  directly 
cognises,  the  fact  that  it  has  existence,  feelings,  know- 
ings, willings,  desires,  ideas,  and  the  like.  Again,  all 
axiomatic  truths  such  as :  the  whole  is  greater  than 


372  EDUCATION 

any  one  of  its  parts ;  if  equals  be  added  to  equals  tte 
wholes  are  equal ;  and  others,  in  their  abstract  forms, 
are  direct  and  immediate  rational  judgments.  The 
element  of  universal  truth  in  them  is  grasped  by  a 
normal  mind  at  the  very  first  occasion  on  which  the 
relation  involved  is  definitely  presented  to  it. 

If  this  were  not  so,  it  is  impossible  to  see  how  such 
judgments  could  arise.  An  unlimited  number  of  similar 
presentations — of  course  it  is  understood  that  the 
presentation,  as  such,  is  thoroughly  complete  and  sound 
in  every  detail — can  add  nothing  new  in  the  way  of 
explanation  or  suggestion.  It  is,  as  in  the  case  of 
physical  sight,  necessary  that  we  realise  at  once,  when 
all  the  conditions,  including  the  capacity  to  realise,  are 
normal ;  or  there  is  no  possibility  of  our  ever  realising. 
Intuitions  which  have  to  do  with  the  purely  mental 
elements  of  experience  are  called  rational  intuitions. 

Care  must  be  taken  in  forming  a  concept  of  intuition 
not  to  press  the  element  of  immediateness  too  far.  It 
can  never  mean  anything  like  absolute  independence  of 
the  ordinary  rational  elements,  for  these  are  always 
finally  inter-dependent  and  inter-related.  The  very 
fact  of  speaking  of  the  direct  grasp  of  "  the  meaning 
and  value  of  an  experience  "  shows  that  this  inter-rela- 
tion is  implicitly  involved.  Perhaps  the  best  way  of 
expressing  the  difference  between  an  intuition  and 
other  units  of  knowledge,  is  to  say  that  in  an  intuition 
the  implicitness  is,  from  the  practical  point  of  view, 
absolute,  in  the  first  instance. 

All  physical  wholes,  as  wholes,  are  directly  known 
through  intuition,  as   are  also  all  parts  as   separate 


THE   DEVELOPMENT   OF   KNOWLEDGE       373 

units,  or  smaller  wholes,  in  so  far  as  knowledge  of 
them  comes  through  direct  experience,  i,e,,  as  percepts. 
Images  and  concepts  of  physical  wholes  may  be  formed 
through  the  constructive  powers  of  thought  alone. 

Accepting  intuitions  in  this  sense,  it  is  clear  that 
they  are  the  foundation  elements  of  all  knowledge.  It 
is  from  them,  and  in  relation  to  them,  that  all  other 
details  of  knowledge  have  their  significance  and  value. 
All  the  highest  rational  products  must  be  based  upon, 
and  conform  with,  these  fundamental  elements,  in  the 
same  way  that  the  most  profound  and  complex 
geometrical  theorem  is,  in  the  last  analysis,  founded 
upon  and  in  accord  with  the  simplest  geometrical 
axioms. 

Of  the  truth  of  intuitions  we  can  offer  no  further 
justification  than  that  they  always  impress  themselves 
upon  us  with  the  same  inevitable  and  unvarying 
significance  ;  and  that  when  we  accurately  relate  other 
experiences  and  judgments  to  them,  we  find  that  all 
actions  based  upon  such  are  in  harmony  with  the 
general  order  of  nature,  so  far  as  we  are  able  to  appre- 
hend by  the  resulting  effects  upon  ourselves  and  other 
objects.  They,  therefore,  are  to  us  the  fundamental,  or 
ultimate,  elements  of  knowledge,  beyond  which  we 
cannot  go,  and  without  which  we  should  be  unable  to 
relate  our  experiences  so  as  to  form  any  systems  of 
knowledge. 

"  The  sum  of  our  perceptions  [intuitions]  forms  the 
circle  of  our  sense  experience,  and  at  the  same  time  the 
material  which  conditions  all  the  higher  activities  of 
the  soul.     The  greatest  extension  of  this  circle  is  seen 


374  EDUCATION 

in  the  first  years  of  life,  and  in  the  following  periods  of 
childhood  and  youth,  and  it  also  experiences  constant 
extension  during  middle  life"  (Lindner). 

2.  Reflection. — Of  the  ways  in  which  knowledge  comes 
to  us  by  reflection,  we  have  been  treating  throughout 
all  our  discussions  hitherto.  The  knowledge  which 
comes  to  us  through  simple  assimilation  and  discrimina- 
tion, association,  relation,  and  reason,  in  connection 
with  all  and  every  kind  and  item  of  experience,  is 
reflection-given.  All  that  comes  to  us  immediately, 
or  through  the  implicit  or  explicit  mental  connection 
of  one  thing  with  another  is  included  under  this 
head. 

3.  CommTmication — Very  limited  indeed  would  be 
the  'total  amount  of  knowledge  that  any  one  person 
could  acquire  in  a  lifetime,  if  he  had  only  his  own 
experiences  to  depend  upon ;  and  infinitely  more 
restricted,  comparatively  speaking,  would  be  that  of  the 
race,  were  it  not  for  the  almost  boundless  supplies  of 
knowledge-giving  information  which  can  be  communi- 
cated through  written  and  spoken  language. 

As  we  have  seen,  a  large  part  of  the  meaning  which 
mind  gets  from  a  presentation  is  due  to  the  representa- 
tive elements  which  interpret  and  apperceive  it.  These 
representative  elements  must  necessarily  act  through 
their  associated  symbols,  for  it  would  be  manifestly 
impossible  to  have  all  the  details  of  all  the  representa- 
tions in  clear  consciousness,  together  with  the  details  of 
the  presentation,  and  also  to  carry  on  the  necessary 
mental  processes. 

In  the  same  way  as   mind    thus  works  with  the 


THE   DEVELOPMENT   OF   KNOWLEDGE        375 

symbols  for  its  own  mental  units,  so  also  it  can  make 
use  of  the  symbols  with  which  others  supply  it,  so  long 
as  it  has  more  or  less  of  the  appropriate  contents  of 
meanings  which  must  be  given  to  the  signs.  The 
modifications  and  adaptations  of  one's  own  knowledge, 
as  gained  from  experience,  can  be  made  effective 
through  judgment,  in  accordance  with  the  suggestions 
or  demands  of  that  which  is  communicated.  On  this 
point  we  have  already  had  a  good  deal  to  say. 

There  are,  however,  certain  conditions  and  precautions 
which  should  always  be  insisted  upon  either  by,  or  on 
behalf  of,  the  learner,  before  accepting  the  description 
of  the  nature,  effects,  and  meanings  of  the  experiences 
of  others,  for  the  same  purposes,  and  in  the  same 
sense,  as  they  themselves  receive  and  make  use  of  the 
symbols  which  represent  their  own  experiences  and 
knowledge.  Of  course  we  assume  that,  as  a  rule, 
individuals  secure  sound  knowledge,  and,  therefore, 
that  it  is  only  the  symbols  of  correct  ideas  that  they 
use  in  obtaining  further  knowledge.  One  must  make 
certain  that  he  has  every  reasonable  guarantee  that  the 
symbols  which  he  gets  from  others  are  quite  trust- 
worthy. 

Probably  the  most  important  points  to  insist  upon 
are  the  following.  Firstly,  there  must  be  no  rational 
contradictions,  or  contradictions  between  parts,  in  any 
series  or  systems  of  facts  and  ideas  conmunicated 
through  language.  It  may  seem  that  the  first  condition 
is  a  little  far-fetched  in  character.  But  when  it  is 
remembered  how  many  systems  of  so-called  religion, 
science,  philosophy,  and  medicine,  are  based  upon  pre- 


376  EDUCATION 

tensions  of  having  solved  mysteries,  made  the  complex 
absolutely  simple,  apprehended  the  inexpressible,  or 
discovered  universal  and  infallible  remedies,  it  will  be 
recognised  that  the  condition  is  not  superfluous. 

The  latter  part  of  the  requirement  is  not  necessarily 
a  vital  one,  for  a  sound  theory  may  be  incompletely 
apprehended  as  to  some  of  its  details.  At  the  same 
time,  however,  we  must  beware  of  hastily  accepting 
every  detail  of  constitution  or  application  of  what  we 
have  every  reason  to  believe  to  be  sound  as  a  whole. 
And  it  may  be  that  some  essential  parts  of  a  whole 
hopelessly  conflict  with  each  other.  Such  a  contradic- 
tion is  fatal. 

Secondly,  we  must  assure  ourselves  that  there  are 
no  contradictions  of  generally  accepted  principles, 
unless  the  assertions  which  involve  them  are  conclusively 
proved,  and  the  orthodox  views  convincingly  disproved. 
When  such  an  issue  is  involved  there  should  be  what 
the  logician  calls  an  "  experimentum  crucis,"  or  test 
case.  Such  an  experiment  must  be  devised  as  will  at 
once  show  that  one  theory  is  true  and  the  other  false. 

Dr.  Fowler  gives  the  following  example  of  a  crucial 
experiment  in  his  '* Inductive  Logic."  "It  has  been 
determined,  from  theoretical  considerations,  that,  on 
the  assumption  of  the  undulatory  theory,  the  velocity 
of  light  must  be  less  in  the  more  highly  refracting 
medium,  while,  according  to  the  emission  theory,  it 
ought  to  be  greater.  When  M.  Foucault  had  invented 
his  apparatus  for  determining  the  velocity  of  light,  it 
became  possible  to  submit  the  question  to  direct  ex- 
periment;  and  it  was  established  by  M.  Fizeau  that 


THE   DEVELOPMENT   OF   KNOWLEDGE        377 

the  velocity  of  light  is  less  in  water  (the  more  highly 
refracting  medium)  than  in  air,  in  the  inverse  propor- 
tion of  the  refractive  indices.  The  result  is,  therefore, 
decisive  in  favour  of  the  undulatory,  or  at  least, 
against  the  emission  theory." 

Thirdly,  we  should  be  convinced,  on  completely  satis- 
factory grounds,  that  the  communicator  is  thoroughly 
reliable  as  to  his  statement  of  facts,  and  as  to  the 
soundness  of  the  more  direct  inferences  which  he 
draws  from  them.  This  is  a  matter  which  is  by  no 
means  involved  in  the  former  conditions.  A  person 
may  put  on  record  a  most  plausible  account  of  obser- 
vations, and  deductions  from  them,  which  he  himself 
most  sincerely  and  conscientiously  believes,  but  which 
are  nevertheless  seriously  misleading,  or  radically  un- 
sound. 

It  often  requires  a  very  wise  and  skilful  person  to 
see  what  he  sees,  in  a  scientific  sense.  We  all  have 
eyes  that  see  not,  and  ears  that  hear  not,  with  regard 
to  certain  elements  of  experience.  If  medical  men 
were  to  trust  wholly  to  what  their  patients,  or  relatives, 
could  tell  them  of  the  symptoms  and  effects  of  their 
disorders,  the  results  would  be  likely  to  be  disastrous 
to  the  sick  ones.  Again,  it  requires  a  psychologist,  and 
an  unprejudiced  one,  to  rightly  observe  the  signs  and 
stages  of  mental  development  in  children. 

Hence,  we  ought  to  regard  the  proper  qualifications 
of  the  communicator  as  one  of  the  essential  guaran- 
tees of  the  trustworthiness  of  the  communication.  A 
commonplace  example  of  the  necessity  of  such  a  safe- 
guard is  afforded  by  the  way  in  which  witnesses  of 


378  EDUCATION 

alleged  furious  driving  estimate  the  rate  of  travelling 
at  all  sorts  of  degrees,  varying  from  five  to  twenty 
miles  an  hour. 

Fourthly,  we  should  be  reasonably  certain  that  we 
are  rightly  interpreting,  at  least  approximately,  the 
symbols  used.  What  has  been  said  about  the  am- 
biguity of  terms  applies  equally  to  phrases,  sentences, 
and  even  trains  of  reasoning.  An  amusing  example 
of  an  ambiguous  sentence  is  the  invitation,  said  to 
have  been  given  by  a  travelling  Irishman  to  an 
acquaintance:  "If  ever  you  are  within  a  mile  of  my 
house,  I  hope  you  will  stay  there  the  night."  The 
ambiguity  of  arguments  is  shown  by  a  case  in  which 
one  might  say :  which  proves  that  A  stole  the  cheque, 
or  that  B  told  lies. 

Where,  therefore,  there  is  no  explicit  statement  of 
a  communicator's  purposes  or  views,  and  the  context 
does  not  obviously  and  conclusively  demand  and  allow 
of  one,  and  only  one,  interpretation,  then  the  learner 
should  definitely  recognise  that  he  is  in  the  region  of 
conjecture,  uncertainty,  and,  it  may  be,  intellectual 
danger.  Under  such  conditions  there  can  be  no 
definite  communication  of  final  knowledge-giving  in- 
formation, as  to  conclusions  on  any  special  points  at 
issue. 

The  history  of  schools  of  thought,  controversies, 
schisms,  factions,  parties,  persecutions,  and  the  like, 
all  show  how  much  turns  upon  a  determination  to  till 
in,  rather  than  accept  only  that  which  is  obviously 
given  out  by,  verbal  forms.  The  world  of  knowledge 
is  full  of  the  evidence  of  foolish  perversity  in  this 


THE   DEVELOPMENT   OF  KNOWLEDGE        379 

matter,  as  witness  the  volumes  of  various  interpreta- 
tions of  great  writers.  How  often  might  weary  readers 
exclaim  in  righteous  wrath:  "One  might  understand 
this  passage,  if  it  were  not  for  the  commentators  I " 

When  the  above  conditions  are  reasonably  satisfied, 
there  is  hardly  any  more  likelihood  of  rational  error 
arising  from  mentally  working  with  the  symbols  of 
other  people's  thoughts  and  experiences^  than  with 
those  of  one's  own. 

Of  course  the  above  remarks  only  apply,  in  their 
fullest  sense,  to  advanced  youths  and  adults;  but 
exactly  the  same  matters,  as  to  principle,  occasionally 
occur  in  connection  with  the  verbal  element  in  the 
education  of  young  children.  These  should  be  dealt 
with,  in  a  very  simple  manner,  as  far  as  possible  on  the 
lines  suggested. 

To  take  a  simple  illustration,  let  us  suppose  that  a 
child  is  reading  about  a  small  boy's  first  ride  in  a  rail- 
way carriage,  and  comes  to  the  sentence,  "  Oh,  mother, 
do  look  at  the  houses  all  running  by  I "  Without  let- 
ting the  little  reader  go  on  to  the  correction  which  will 
doubtless  be  found  in  the  following  lines,  the  educator 
can  make  this  an  opportunity  for  asking  such  ques- 
tions as:  Have  you  ever  seen  houses  run?  Do  you 
think  they  can  run?  Why  not?  Thus  the  element 
of  inaccuracy  in  the  judgment  is  made  obvious,  for  the 
words  express  something  which  is  opposed  to  known 
truths. 

Then  the  unfitness  of  the  observer  for  giving  a  sound 
and  accurate  judgment  about  what  was  happening 
might  be  brought  out,  by  such  questions  as,  "  Do  little 


380  EDUCATION 

boys  know  very  much  ?  Do  they  understand  all  that 
happens  around  them  (as,  how  the  engine  can  draw 
the  carriages)  ?  Do  older  people  sometimes  make  mis- 
takes? Does  ii  look  as  though  the  houses  moved? 
What  does  move  ? 

Stages  of  Development  in  Knowledge — That  know- 
ledge does  not  come  to  us  in  an  absolutely  clear,  full, 
and  final  form  in  the  first  instance,  none  would  be 
likely  to  dispute.  Even  intuitions,  though  they  can 
never  be  said  to  alter  their  essential  characters,  become 
more  clear  and  definite  after  repeated  experiences.  It 
is  this  progress  in  clearness,  definiteness,  and  fulness, 
of  ideas  with  which  we  are  concerned  in  tracing  the 
stages  in  the  development  of  knowledge ;  for  as  ideas 
become  more  precise  in  form,  and  more  rich  in  content, 
so  also  will  judgments,  reasonings,  and  the  whole  of 
organised  knowledge. 

Dr.  Lindner  says:  ''Not  clearness,  therefore,  but 
obscurity  is  the  original  form  of  consciousness,  as  is  the 
case  with  the  new  born  child,  the  majority  of  animals, 
and  with  the  adult  in  the  condition  of  sleep."  So  also 
Dr.  Hoffding  remarks  :  "  Distinctness  and  individuality 
are  relative  conceptions,  and  our  ideas  may  in  this  respect 
pass  through  a  whole  scale.  The  ideas  of  children  and 
of  primitive  men  have  often  a  certain  abstract,  vague, 
and  general  character,  because  they  do  not  distinctly 
apprehend  and  hold  fast  the  individual  shades  and 
differences.  At  the  first,  only  particular  sides  of  the 
object  are  apprehended  and  preserved." 

The  same  fact  is  insisted  upon  by  Dr.  Ward,  who 
indicates  the  character  of  infantile  presentations  thus : 


THE   DEVELOPMENT   OF   KNOWLEDGE        381 

**  In  place  of  the  many  things  which  we  can  now  see 
and  hear,  not  merely  would  there  then  be  a  confused 
presentation  of  the  whole  field  of  vision  and  of  a  mass 
of  undistinguished  sounds,  but  even  the  diflference 
between  sights  and  sounds  themselves  would  be  without 
its  present  distinctness." 

An  infant,  or  any  person  suddenly  called  upon  to 
deal  with  what  we  should  ordinarily  call  utterly  un- 
known experiences,  may  be  described  as  looking  out  upon 
the  vague  and  vast  unknown  ;  except  that  there  would 
be  the  recognition,  with  what  we  have  termed  absolute 
implicitness  by  the  infant,  but  with  more  or  less 
explicitness  by  an  adult,  of  a  something  which  it  may 
be  possible  to  know. 

The  first  necessity  for  knowledge  in  such  a  case  is  to 
be  able  to  make  out  some  element  of  difference  in  the 
general  presentation.  This  will  probably  consist  of  sug- 
gestions of  limits  or  boundaries,  of  some  kind  or  other. 
These  will  then  gradually  become  more  and  more  clear 
and  definite  until  the  whole  is  more  or  less  completely 
marked  off  into  areas.  The  content  and  significance  of 
these  areas  will  doubtless  remain  as  vague  as  ever  for 
some  considerable  time.  But  a  beginning  has  been 
made.  This  may  be  regarded  as  the  first  stage  in  the 
development  of  knowledge. 

When  so  much  has  been  accomplished,  the  marking 
off  of  concrete  differences,  more  or  less  superficial,  is 
likely  to  go  on  to  a  very  considerable  extent.  In  this 
way  each  ot*  the  areas,  or  smaller  wholes,  into  which  the 
original  presentation  was  divided,  will  themselves  be 
known  as  consisting  of  distinguishable  details  or  parts. 


382  EDUCATION 

Also  the  knowledge  of  these  parts  will  become  clearer 
and  more  definite  through  repeated  experiences.  To 
again  quote  Dr.  Ward :  "  Because  things  are  so  often  a 
world  within  themselves,  their  several  parts  or  members 
not  only  having  distinguishing  qualities  but  moving  and 
changing  with  more  or  less  independence  of  the  rest,  it 
comes  about  that  what  is  from  one  point  of  view  one 
thing  becomes  from  another  point  of  view  several,  like 
a  tree  with  its  separable  branches  and  fruits,  for 
example."  Such  a  marking  ofif  of  the  first  recognised 
wholes  into  their  smaller  wholes  or  constituent  parts,  is 
the  second  stage  of  knowledga 

There  then  remains,  in  general  terms,  only  the  know- 
ledge of  the  relations,  qualities,  laws,  and  principles, 
which  are  involved  the  great  total,  the  constituent 
wholes,  and  their  details,  to  be  acquired.  To  know  these 
exhaustively  it  will  be  necessary  to  have  a  complete 
knowledge  of  the  minutest  details  of  each  of  the  parts. 
Herein  lies  the  third  stage  of  knowledge,  which  is 
obviously  a  very  wide,  and  practically  unlimited,  region. 

Leibnitz  has  called  these  three  stages  of  knowledge 
the  clear,  the  distinct,  and  the  adequate.  Knowledge 
is  clear  when  we  are  able  to  mark  off  wholes  from  each 
other,  in  the  first  division  of  the  total  presentation.  It 
is  distinct  when  we  know  each  separate  and  distinct 
part  of  a  whole.  To  know  in  these  stages  means  to 
have  such  clear  and  definite  percepts  that  we  can,  as  a 
rule,  without  hesitation  or  mistake,  recognise  or  identify 
a  whole,  or  part,  as  such-and-such.  Knowledge  is 
adequate  when,  if  ever,  we  know  all  about  all  the  parts 
of  a  whole. 


THE  DEVELOPMENT  OP  KNOWLEDGE       383 

These  stages  may  be  illustrated  by  the  following 
example.  We  have  clear  knowledge  of  an  oak  tree 
when  we  are  able  to  clearly  mark  it  off  from  anything 
that  is  not  a  tree,  and  also  from  other  trees,  so  that  we 
are  almost  invariably  right,  under  ordinary  conditions, 
when  we  say  :  this  is  an  oak  tree.  When  we  can,  in 
a  similar  manner,  distinguish  between  the  trunk, 
branches,  roots,  leaves,  blossoms,  seeds,  and  all  the 
essential  botanical  parts  of  a  tree,  we  have  distinct 
knowledge  of  the  tree.  If  we  are  able  to  attain  to  a 
knowledge  of  every  constituent  element  and  of  every 
principle  concerning  the  nature,  development,  and  life 
of  the  tree,  and  its  direct  relations  to  other  wholes,  we 
might  approximate  to  an  adequate  knowledge  of  it,  as  a 
whole. 

The  way  in  which  knowledge  gradually  grows  in  the 
mind  has  been  very  aptly  compared  to  experiences  on  a 
foggy  morning.  A  person  walking  along  and  looking 
straight  ahead  sees  nothing  but  a  boundless  misty  . 
vagueness  before  him.  Presently  there  looms  before 
him  a  kind  of  intensified  and  limited  vagueness,  making 
in  the  general  vagueness  a  suggestion  of  a  something 
definite  within,  or  behind  it.  Further  progress  makes 
the  suggestiveness  more  definite,  and  it  may  be  that  a 
guess  is  hazarded  as  to  its  being  some  animal,  a  man,  or 
a  house.  Soon  after  there  is  no  longer  any  doubt  as 
between  these,  for  the  outline  has  become  so  definite 
that  it  is  clearly  that  of  a  house.  This  is  the  point 
when  knowledge  is  clear. 

As  he  gets  nearer  to  the  house  he  sees  that  it  is  a 
cottage  built  of  bricks,  with  a  thatched  roof,  and  foui 


384  EDUCATION 

windows  at  the  front.  Next  he  comes  up  to  the  build- 
ing and  sees  all  the  external  details.  If  we  suppose 
him  to  enter  the  house,  go  into  each  room,  and  care- 
fully take  account  of  every  concrete  detail,  he  could 
thus  gain  a  distinct  knowledge  of  it. 

Now  the  fog  may  be  assumed  to  have  disappeared, 
and  the  full  sunlight  to  be  shining  upon  the  house  and 
its  surroundings.  There  is  no  further  obstacle  to  a 
complete  knowledge  of  all  the  concrete  constituents  of 
the  object.  Not  all  at  once,  however,  are  all  the 
details  seen  and  known.  Much  practical  eflfort  and 
concrete  analysis  must  be  gone  through  before  com- 
pletely distinct  knowledge  is  gained. 

From  this  point  there  is  only  the  purely  rational 
obscurity  which  has  to  be  explored.  The  progress  in 
this  is  very  similar  to  the  previous  advance.  Of  course 
at  the  present  time,  when  the  opportunities  for  getting 
knowledge  are  so  numerous,  and  aids  so  plentiful  and 
efficient,  it  is  not  easy  to  realise,  so  fully  and  in  such 
detail,  all  the  mental  difficulties.  But  if  we  consider 
how  the  race  has  advanced  through  what  we  should 
call  the  absurdest  superstitions  about  material  things 
to  exact  scientific  knowledge  of  them,  we  shall  under- 
stand more  of  what  is  actually  involved  in  rational 
progress. 

If,  then,  the  traveller  pursues  his  inquiries  until  he 
understands  all  about  all  the  details  of  the  house,  in 
the  light  of  all  that  each  of  the  physical  sciences  has  to 
tell  or  suggest  about  them,  then  he  is  in  the  way  of 
obtaining  adequate  knowledge  about  the  object  as  a 
whole. 


THE   DEVELOPMENT   OF  KNOWLEDGE        385 

A  few  words  of  detail  about  each  of  the  stages  may 
help  to  make  matters  still  clearer. 

I.  Clear  Knowledge — Doubtless  it  will  have  been 
noticed  that  clear  knowledge  involves  the  intuition  of 
a  thing  as  a  distinct  whole.  This  wholeness  is  the 
first  element  of  what  we  have  called  thingness.  There 
is  no  suggestion  of  parts  or  contents  involved  in  it, 
much  less  any  apprehension,  however  vague,  of  them. 
Hence,  clear  knowledge  may  be  said  to  include  all 
primary  intuitions,  and  percepts,  of  things.  But  the 
complex  and  immediate  percept,  known  as  such,  is 
wholly  excluded. 

Knowledge  which  falls  short  of  the  definiteness  and 
accuracy  required  for  clear  knowledge,  in  the  sense 
that  one  is  frequently,  say,  mistaking  an  oak  tree  for 
an  elm  tree,  and  otherwise  confusing  wholes  with  one 
another,  is  said  to  be  obscure. 

Liebnitz  says:  "A  notion  is  obscure  when  it  is 
not  suflBcient  to  enable  us  to  recognise  the  thing  which 
it  represents;  when,  for  example,  I  remember  some 
flower  or  animal  which  I  have  formerly  seen,  but  this 
remembrance  is  not  sufficient  to  enable  me  to  recognise 
its  image,  or  to  discriminate  it  from  others  which  re- 
semble it.  When,  again,  I  think  of  some  term  .... 
which  has  never  been  sufficiently  explained,  such  for 
example  as  the  ....  term  cause  ....  the  proposi- 
tion is  obscure  into  which  such  a  notion  enters."  (A.  S. 
Baynes'  translation.) 

The  element  of  indefiniteness  in  ordinary  thought  is 
well  pointed  out  by  Dr.  Isambard  Owen,  in  the  follow- 
ing passage  :  "  Or  take  the  evidence  of  language  (it  is 

2b 


386  EDUCATION 

a  practical  point),  and  mark  how  vagneness  of  arith- 
metic conception  [perception]  reflects  and  even  ex- 
aggerates itself  in  vagueness  of-  arithmetic  diction. 
Our  grammars  contain  an  ample  list  of  numerals ;  the 
State  supplies  a  set  of  standard  measures ;  but  in  speech 
and  writing,  even  the  most  careful,  numerals  and  terms 
of  measurement  have  to  give  place  to  a  host  of  words, 
such  as  'many,'  *few,'  *  large,'  *  small,'  'often,'  'seldom,' 
to  which  it  is  difficult  to  attach  any  definite  meaning. 
We  are  fain,  however,  to  use  them,  not  precisely 
because  our  conceptions  [perceptions]  are  equally 
vague,  but  because  they  are  still  not  definite  enough  to 
find  arithmetical  expression." 

Although  it  is  not  usual  to  re-apply  the  names  clear, 
distinct,  and  adequate,  to  stages  of  development  in 
what  is  termed  purely  rational  knowledge,  yet  there 
would  seem  to  be  much  to  recommend  such  a  course. 
Those  who  have  studied  the  pure  sciences,  and,  more  es- 
pecially those  who  have  studied  the  mental  sciences,  will 
know  that  there  is  the  same  kind  of  development  in  the 
power  to  clearly  apprehend  the  purely  rational.  We  shall, 
therefore,  briefly  point  out  how  the  terms  do  so  apply. 

In  the  realm  of  what  is  known  as  pure  reason,  clear 
knowledge  will  embrace  all  rational  intuitions,  and 
simple  primary  forms  of  conceptual  judgment.  Tho 
accurate  marking  off  of  presentations  from  percepts, 
percepts  from  concepts,  pleasures  from  pains,  desires 
from  willings,  feeling  from  knowing,  and  the  like,  will 
be  included  under  clear  knowledge.  All  knowledge 
which  fails  to  rightly  and  habitually  mark  these  off 
from  each  other  will  be  obscure. 


THE   DEVELOPMENT   OF   KNOWLEDGE        387 

It  is  interesting  to  notice  how  the  individual  is  con- 
stantly repeating  this  cycle  of  progress  in  knowledge, 
throughout  his  life.  If  a  man  who  had  lived  in  a  city 
all  his  life,  and  knew  next  to  nothing  of  practical 
affairs  beyond  the  limits  of  a  business  office,  were 
required  to  distinguish  one  dog  from  another  in  a  pack 
of  hounds,  he  would,  probably,  very  keenly  realise  the 
fact  that  he  had  eyes  which  had  not  yet  learnt  to  see 
in  this  particular  sphere. 

Much  in  the  same  way  men  who  have  had  a  long 
training  in  practical  affairs,  or  even  in  the  physical 
sciences,  are  at  first  wholly  at  a  loss  in  attempting  the 
mental  sciences;  and  are  very  apt  to  consider  such 
subjects  as  little  better  than  elaborate  verbal  frauds. 
Their  mental  eyes  are  not  yet  opened  to  mental 
objects.  But  none  such  need  despair,  for  they  have 
eyes  which  may  be  opened. 

2.  Distinct  Knowledge — This  corresponds  to  and 
includes  all  complex  percepts.  There  will  be,  so  far  as 
the  concrete  is  concerned,  no  concept  element,  known 
as  difierent  from  the  percept,  in  it.  It  is  simply  the 
application  of  the  conditions  of  clear  knowledge  to  each 
and  every  distinct  part  of  a  concrete  whole. 

If  there  be  so  much  indefiniteness  or  incompleteness 
in  such  knowledge  that  one  part  is  more  or  less  fre- 
quently taken  for  another,  then  the  knowledge  is,  from 
this  point  of  view,  said  to  be  confused. 

With  regard  to  the  application  of  the  term  in  the 
sphere  of  the  purely  rational,  our  knowledge  will  be 
distinct  when  we  can  distinguish  definitely  between  the 
constituent  elements   in  a  complete  concept,  e,g,,  the 


388  EDUCATION 

concepts  of  animality  and  rationality  as  composing  the 
concept  of  humanity.  When  there  is  failure  in  this 
respect  the  knowledge  is  confused. 

As  Dr.  Sully  says:  '*A  boy  has  a  distinct  idea  of 
coal  when  he  clearly  distinguishes  and  grasps  together 
as  a  whole  its  several  qualities,  as  its  black  colour,  its 
frangibility,  combustibility,  &c.  On  the  other  hand, 
an  idea  is  indistinct,  hazy,  or  ill-deJSned,  when  the  con- 
stituent qualities  of  the  objects  are  not  thus  distinctly 

represented A  concept  is  indistinct  when  it  is 

apt  to  be  confused  with  a  kindred  concept.  Thus  a 
boy  studying  history  has  confused  notions  when  he  does 
not  discriminate  an  aggressive  from  a  defensive  war,  a 
limited  from  an  absolute  monarchy,  and  so  forth." 

One  can  hardly  help  being  struck  with  the  tremendous 
diflBculty^  often  amounting  to  practical  impossibility,  of 
really  knowing  every  distinct  part  of  some  very  complex 
wholes.  And  this  becomes  more  and  more  true  as 
knowledge  advances,  for  definite  diflferences  of  structure, 
nature,  and  function  of  details,  which  were  previously 
thought  to  be  non-distinctive  parts  of  a  part,  are  being 
constantly  discovered.  Anatomy  and  chemistry  give 
good  examples  of  this. 

It,  therefore,  becomes  a  question  as  to  how  far  know- 
ledge must  go  before  it  can  be  said  to  be  really  distinct. 
Tor  practical  purposes  it  is  sufficient  to  have  a  know- 
ledge of  the  more  important  and  obviously  distinguish- 
able, parts.  But  it  is,  perhaps,  well  to  take  an  ideal 
standard  of  knowledge,  and  to  admit  that  there  are 
comparatively  few  things,  if  any,  of  which  we  can  really 
have  exhaustively  distinct  knowledge. 


THE   DEVELOPMENT   OF   KNOWLEDGE        389 

Liebuitz  thus  distinguishes  between  confused  and 
distinct  knowledge :  "  It  is  confused  when  we  are  not 
able  to  enumerate  marks  sufficient  to  discriminate  the 
thing  from  others,  although  it  may,  in  reality,  have  such 
marks  and  requisites  into  which  its  notion  may  be 
resolved.  Thus.  .  .  .  painters  and  other  artists  discern 
well  enough  what  is  well  or  ill  done ;  but  often  are  not 
able  to  give  a  reason  for  their  judgment,  and  reply  to 
those  who  inquire  what  it  is  that  displeases  them  in  the 
work,  that  there  is  something,  they  know  not  what, 
wanting. 

"  But  a  distinct  notion  is  such  as  the  assayers  have 
concerning  gold,  by  marks  and  tests  which  are  sufficient 
to  distinguish  it  from  all  other  similar  bodies.  ...  A 
distinct  knowledge  of  an  indefinable  notion  is  ...  . 
possible  when  it  is  primitive  or  self-evident — that  is, 
when  it  is  ultimate."  In  other  words,  intuitions  are 
included  in  distinct  notions. 

3.  Adequate  Knowledge. — From  what  has  already  been 
said  it  will  have  been  gathered  that  adequate  knowledge 
must  mean  perfectly  exhaustive  and  correct  knowledge 
about  an  object.  Strictly  understood,  it  implies  that 
condition  of  knowledge  in  which  it  is  clearly  seen  that 
all  is  in  all,  as  Jacotot  says.     But  this  is  omniscience. 

In  this  strict  sense  we  cannot  be  said  to  have  ade- 
quate knowledge  of  any  one  thing,  for  to  do  so  we  must 
know  everything  about  everything.  For  example,  can 
we  claim  to  know  everything  about  our  own  alphabet  ? 
We  can  certainly  have  a  completely  distin.^t  knowledge 
of  it,  for  it  is  easily  analysed  into  its  geometrical 
elements  of  outline.     But  when  we  go  beyond  this  we 


390  EDUCATION 

have  to  regard  it  as  a  system  of  thought-symbol 
elements.  This  brings  us  to  a  consideration  of  the 
functions  and  principles  of  language,  and  at  once  we  are 
in  a  boundless  region  of  fact  and  philosophy. 

Adequate  knowledge  may,  indeed,  be  regarded  as 
wholly  impossible  for  us.  We  can  only  hope  to  more  and 
more  approximate  to  it  as  our  knowledge  and  powers  in- 
crease. Leibnitz  said  that  adequate  knowledge  is  intui- 
tive and  perfect.  For  all  knowledge  to  be  intuitive  would 
mean  that  there  would  be  no  knowledge  in  our  present 
sense  of  the  term.  An  omniscient  individual  does  not 
learn,  relate,  compare,  and  so  on ;  he  simply  cognises  in  an 
absolutely  immediate  and  complete  sense.  He  cannot 
be  said  to  analyse  or  synthesise,  for  everything  must 
come  to  him  already  analysed  and  synthesised,  as 
universal  and  perfect  intuition. 

Both  the  concrete  and  the  purely  rational  elements 
of  knowledge  are  included  in  adequate  knowledge. 
There  is,  therefore,  no  need  to  speak  of  the  latter 
separately.  All  knowledge  that  falls  short  of  being 
adequate  is  described  as  inadequate,  or  imperfect. 

We  may  illustrate  the  application  of  the  stages  of 
knowledge,  in  the  case  of  a  judgment,  by  the  following. 
The  judgment  **  all  dogs  are  quadrupeds  *'  is  clear,  in  a 
perceptual  sense,  when  the  concrete  ideas  of  dog  and 
quadruped,  and  the  significance  of  including  both  in 
the  same  group,  are  clear.  It  is  clear,  in  a  conceptual 
sense,  when  the  concepts  of  dog  and  quadruped,  and 
the  significance  of  the  relation  between  them,  are  clear. 
The  judgment  is  distinct  when  all  the  elements  of  the 
peicepts,  or  of  the  concepts,   are   distinct.      It   will 


THE  DEVELOPMENT   OF   KNOWLEDGE        391 

approximate  to  the  adequate,  when  more  or  less  of  all 
the  perceptual  and  conceptual  elements  of  fact,  signi- 
fication, implication,  and  universal  inter-relation  and 
dependence,  are  known.  We  must  know  the  concrete 
and  rational  details  involved  in  the  arriving  at  the 
judgment  inductively,  and  their  deductive  implications. 

Of  adequate  knowledge  Liebnitz  says :  "  When  every- 
thing which  enters  into  a  distinct  notion  is  distinctly 
known,  or  when  the  last  analysis  is  known,  the  know- 
ledge is  adequate,  of  which  I  scarcely  know  whether 
a  perfect  example  can  be  offered ;  the  knowledge  of 
numbers,  however,  approaches  near  to  it." 

So  *does  the  greatest  of  all  human  possessions  come  to 
man.  There  are  the  first  frightened  peeps  into 
the  great  unknown:  then  the  timid  gaze:  the  shy 
reaching  forth  of  the  hand :  the  hesitating  grasping  of 
things :  and  the  doubting  appropriation  of  the  facts  of 
life  and  thought.  Then  follow :  the  earnest  strivings 
to  know  truly  :  the  realisation  of  the  infinity  of  know- 
ledge: the  thrilling  and  sometimes  lasting  joys  of 
conquest :  and  the  strength  of  the  humility  of  knowing 


CHAPTER   IX 

GENERAL   PRINCIPLES   OF  EDUCATION  — (amttVittecO 

Again  we  have  to  deal  with  the  general  "  principle 
of  development  "  in  education,  from  the  point  of  view 
of  greater  detail  with  regard  to  a  particular  aspfect  of 
it  It  will  be  well  to  remind  ourselves  that  when  we 
speak  of  the  educational  principle  of  development, 
we  mean  the  manner  in  which  the  educator  should 
use  certain  kinds  of  educative  influences  so  as  to 
bring  about  the  greatest  possible  harmony  and  co- 
operation between  the  developing  mind  and  the 
educating  processes. 

The  Principle  of  Development.  —  Whereas  we  were 
treating  of  the  elements  of  knowledge,  and  the  educa- 
tional principles  connected  therewith,  under  the  title 
of  the  development  of  ideas,  we  have  now  to  speak  of 
the  educational  principles  derived  from  a  considera- 
tion of  the  nature  and  development  of  what  we  may  call 
the  units  of  knowledge.  A  unit  of  Ifnowledge  may  be 
said  to  be  the  apprehension,  however  vague  and  super- 
ficial at  first,  of  any  whole  of  experience.  Obviously 
this  will  take  us  to  sensations  as  the  first  units  of 
knowledge ;  after  which  will  follow  the  realisation  of 


GENERAL  PRINCIPLES  393 

physical  wholes,  when  the  sense  organs  begin  to  do 
their  work  more  definitely. 

1.  From  the  Concrete  to  the  Abstract  —  It  will  be  seen 
that  further  light  is  thrown  upon  this  maxim,  by  what 
has  been  said  about  the  development  of  knowledge 
from  the  clear  to.  the  distinct,  and  then  to  the  ade- 
quate. But  it  is  not  necessary  to  do  more  than  draw 
attention  to  the  fact  that  we  thereby  learn  that  there 
is  a  progress  in  the  clearness,  as  well  as  the  fulness,  of 
ideas.  We  must  not  expect  that  first  ideas  will,  ordin- 
arily, be  quite  clear  and  definite,  any  more  than  that 
they  will  be  full  and  accurate. 

2.  From  the  Known  to  the  Unknown.  —  We  now  see 
that  what  is  first  known  is  very  imperfectly  known  to 
begin  with,  and  that  we  have  to  proceed  from  a  very 
vague,  indefinite,  and  incomplete  knowledge  of  a  thing, 
to  a  more  clear,  distinct,  and  approximately  adequate 
knowledge  of  it.  Also  we  find  that  large  unknown 
wholes  are  first  divided  into  smaller  unknown  wholes, 
at  least  in  many  cases ;  and,  although  the  large  whole 
is  the  better  known  in  that  we  have  still  further 
analysed  it,  yet  the  new  units  will  probably  be  almost, 
if  not  quite,  as  unknown  as  the  inclusive  unit  was  at 
first. 

Thus  we  have  what  we  may  call  the  reciprocal 
truth  of  the  converse  of  this  maxim.  That  is  to  say, 
whilst  it  is  true  that  we  are  proceeding  from  what  we 
first  know  to  what  at  first  was  not  known,  we  are 
also  advancing  from  a  slight  knowledge  of  a  whole  to 
a  much  fuller  mastery  of  it.  From  the  latter  point  of 
view  we  are  progressing  from  the  less  known  to  the 


394  EDUCATION 

more  known,  with  respect  to  the  same  inclusive  unit 
of  experience  and  knowledge.  This  truth  must  be 
recognised  and  remembered  by  the  educator,  or  he  will 
be  likely  to  take  wrong  attitudes  towards  the  maxim. 

Let  it  be  carefully  noted  that  both  points  of  view 
apply  to  the  same  unit  of  knowledge.  For  example, 
when  an  individual  learns  about  levers,  he  should  first 
be  called  upon  to  tell  how  he  has  gained  help  in  mov- 
ing and  lifting  heavy  bodies  from  simple  mechanical 
aids,  or  has  seen  others  do  so.  A  boy  may  have 
noticed  the  large  and  heavy  piles  of  luggage  which  a 
porter  is  able  to  raise  and  move  by  means  of  his 
specially-constructed  barrow.  He  will  also  know  how 
very  greatly  a  claw-hammer  helps  in  drawing  out  a  nail 
from  a  piece  of  wood,  and  a  poker  in  loosening  the  fire. 
These  items  of  general,  and  more  or  less  superficial, 
knowledge  are  brought  together  to  prepare  for,  and 
assist  in,  the  discovery  of  more  exact  practical  know- 
ledge about  levers.  He  is,  therefore,  proceeding  from 
the  more  known  to  the  more  or  less  unknown. 

But,  on  the  other  hand,  in  so  far  as  his  previous 
knowledge  was  really  knowledge  about  levers  which 
it  is  now  proposed  to  extend  and  make  more  exact,  he 
is  progressing  from  the  less  known  to  the  more  known, 
in  his  knowledge  of  levers.  This  is,  after  all,  only  two 
ways  of  stating  the  same  truth,  but  the  putting  of  the 
point  explicitly  may  prevent  possible  confusion. 

The  gradual  development  of  knowledge,  from  the 
latter  point  of  view,  also  deserves  attention.  There 
is  first  the  progress  from  one  thing  that  is  slightly 
known  to  another  which  is  also  slightly  known ;  then 


GENERAL  PRINCIPLES  395 

there  is  the  advance  from  slight  knowledge  to  a  fuller 
knowledge  of  the  same  inclusive,  or  separate,  unit  of 
knowledge;  and,  finally,  we  have  the  growth  from  a 
comparatively  fuller  knowledge  of  a  thing  to  a  more 
and  more  full,  scientific,  and  profound  knowledge  of 
it.  These  stages  move  consecutively  with  regard  to 
the  same  unit  of  knowledge,  but  concurrently  as  to 
dififerent  units. 

Having  regard  to  any  fresh  step  in  knowledge, 
simply  as  a  fresh  step,  then  the  statement  of  the 
maxim :  from  the  more  known  to  the  less  known, 
must  be  held  to  have  an  invariable  and  universal 
application.  In  other  words,  we  must  always  provide 
for  interpreting  the  presentative  by  the  representative : 
for  understanding  the  new  by  means  of  the  old :  and 
for  growing  out  of  what  we  are  into  that  which  we  are 
becoming. 

3.  From  the  Simple  to  the  Complex.  —  Again  we  get 
further,  and  valuable,  knowledge  of  the  significance  of 
this  maxim.  We  have  previously  described  the  simple, 
for  educational  purposes,  as  that  which  is  well  known, 
familiar,  and  under  such  control  that  it  can,  as  a  rule, 
be  readily  and  accurately  applied  either  in  theory  or 
practice.  But  it  is  necessary  that  we  should  have 
some  idea  as  to  what  are  to  be  regarded  as  the  first 
forms  of  the  simple,  in  the  development  of  knowledge 
in  the  individual.  It  is  most  important  that  we  should 
know  this,  because  such  things  will  constitute  the  best, 
and  the  only  really  trustworthy,  points  of  departure 
for  imparting  knowledge. 

There  can  hardly  be  any  question  as  to  the  truth  of 


396  EDUCATION 

the  fact  that  every  first  unit  of  knowledge  must  come 
from  within  the  limits  of  the  individual's  own  experi- 
ence. What  we  want  to  know,  therefore,  is  :  what  are 
the  first  ideas  which  the  individual  is  likely  to  derive 
from  his  experiences  of  his  surroundings,  with  regard 
to  any  given  knowledge-subject  which  the  educator 
usually  employs. 

Fortunately  there  is  very  general  agreement  as  to 
what  are  the  first  units  of  knowledge  in  some  subjects, 
and  these  will  at  least  form  a  basis  for  obtaining  some 
support  from  practical  thought  for  what  we  shall  urge 
as  the  truly  scientific  view.  Thus  in  geography  most 
educationists  would  agree  that  the  proper  matter  to  start 
with  is  the  child's  knowledge  of  his  own  surroundings, 
and  that  this  should  be  so  organised  as  to  lead  on  to 
all  the  ordinary  forms  of  geographical  knowledge. ' 

Again,  the  view  that  grammar  should  begin  with  the 
sentence,  because  it  is,  either  in  a  full  or  elliptical  form, 
the  first  unit  of  language  knowledge  which  the  child 
acquires,  is  usually  accepted  as  the  right  one.  That 
writing  should  be  introduced  by  drawing,  and  that 
formal  and  symbolic  reckoning  (arithmetic)  ought  to  be 
preceded  by  concrete  grouping  and  mental  exercises, 
are  generally  recognised  educational  truths. 

Now  the  scientific  justification  for  such  views  is  the 
fact  that  in  each  case  the  foundations  of  the  educational 
exercises  are  laid  within  the  sphere  of  the  child's  own 
actual  experience  and  present  knowledge ;  though  the 
latter  is  more  or  less  implicit,  in  so  far  as  the  formal 
organisation  of  it  is  concerned.  This  point  must  be 
emphatically  insisted   upon,  and   constantly  borne    in 


GENERAL   PRINCIPLES  397 

mind.  It  is  the  whole  within  the  beginner's  knowledge 
and  experience  which  must  be  made  use  of,  and  not  a 
more  perfect  and  comprehensive  one  which  is  quite 
familiar  and  easy  to  th^  ordinary  adult,  or  to  the 
educator. 

Much  less  should  it  be  a  whole  which  represents,  not 
the  primal,  but  the  present  knowledge  possession  of  the 
race.  And  yet  many  have  advocated  this  last  named 
whole,  and  some  even  still  use  it  Geography  was 
formerly,  and  in  some  cases  is  still,  begun  with  an  out- 
line account  of  the  geography  of  the  world.  To  begin 
with  the  whole  of  one's  native  land  is  equally  bad,  for 
it  is  quite  as  much  an  unknown  world  to  the  child. 

The  teaching  of  history,  strangely  enough,  is  still  in 
the  stage  of  practical  blundering,  except  in  the  case  of  a 
few  scientific  thinkers,  notwithstanding  the  recognition 
of  its  intimate  connection  with  geography.  It  is  thought 
that  beginning  with  vivid  biographical  accounts  of 
some  of  the  most  striking  or  important  personages  of 
former  times  is  a  sufficient  simplification  of  the  subject 
matter ;  whilst  a  good  many  hold  that  a  short  outline 
sketch  of  a  brief  period  of  the  earliest  history  of  the 
fatherland,  with  plenty  of  illustrations,  will  do  all  that 
is  required.  Others,  again,  still  hold  to  the  "  good  old 
way,  the  ancient  plan  "  of  beginning  with  the  creation 
of  the  world,  and  working  down  through  a  very  brief 
sketch  of  all  the  history  of  all  the  nations. 

But  surely  history  should  begin,  like  geography, 
with  the  knowledge  of  the  home  life.  If  the  child 
realises  anything  at  all,  it  must  know  something  about 
the  changes  connected  with  its  own  life.    The  change 


398  EDUCATION 

from  the  home  life  to  the  school  life,  from  the  school 
for  younger  to  that  for  older  schoLirs,  from  a  day 
school  to  a  boarding  school:  the  significant  change 
from  the  dress  of  childhood  to  that  of  youth:  the 
difference  between  the  dress  of  a  grandmother  and 
grandfather  and  that  of  a  grown-up  sister  and  brother : 
the  comparison  of  the  organisation  and  government  of 
the  home  with  those  of  the  school:  old  houses,  and 
local  customs,  institutions,  and  traditions :  the  disused 
canal  beside  the  busy  railway :  and  the  like,  all  form 
starting  points  for  biographical,  social,  local,  political, 
commercial,  and  national  history. 

Eeading  is  another  subject  which  is  not  yet  generally, 
or  completely,  delivered  from  the  bondage  of  educa- 
tional ignorance.  A  more  widespread  recognition  of 
the  fact  that  the  combined  aural  and  visual  whole 
should,  as  in  the  case  of  the  vocal  and  aural  whole, 
be  a  sentence  is  required.  This  does  not  exclude  the 
giving  of  single  words  as  a  preliminary  to  short 
sentences;  for  such  a  proceeding  is  quite  in  accord 
with  the  development  of  language.  The  first  efforts  in 
language  consist  of  single  word  sentences,  that  is, 
exclamations.  To  exclaim  "Man!  "and  to  point  with 
the  finger,  ia  a  combinaiion  of  vocal  and  gesture  lan- 
guage, and  has  some  such  meaning  as :  that  is  a  man ; 
here  is  a  man ;  or,  I  see  a  man  there. 

We  have  discussed  this  point  is  some  detail,  because 
we  are  of  opinion  that  much  hindrance  arises,  and 
great  mischief  is  often  caused,  in  relation  to  the  earliest 
stage  of  education,  owing  to  misconceptions  about  it, 
or  the  want  of  a  clear  and  definite  realisation  of  the 


GENERAL   PRINCIPLES  399 

truth.  It  is  of  the  greatest  moment  that  we  should 
understand,  and  endeavour  always  to  realise  in  practice, 
those  words  of  Pestalozzi :  *'  The  circle  of  knowledge 
commences  close  round  a  man,  and  from  thence 
stretches  out  concentrically." 

Such  are  the  conditions  which  will  provide  the  order 
of  greatest  simplicity.  And  this  will  be  still  more 
effectively  secured  if  careful  consideration  be  given  to 
the  gradual  progress  from  clear  to  distinct,  and  from 
distinct  to  adequate,  ideas,  in  each  separate  item  of 
knowledge.  At  first  a  brief  outline  of  the  whole 
should  be  considered,  until  its  general  nature  and 
significance,  from  the  practical  standpoint,  are  made 
reasonably  clear  and  permanent.  Then  may  come  the 
fuller  and  fuller  detail,  until  all  the  important  parts  of 
the  whole  are  also  made  clear,  and  so  the  idea  of  the 
whole  becomes  distinct.  Later  on  still  higher  and 
deeper  knowledge  of  the  powers,  relations,  and  laws  of 
the  matter  should  be  attempted. 

This  maxim,  like  all  the  others,  should  be  understood 
in  its  detailed  meaning.  It  should  be  stated  thus: 
from  simple  to  simple,  from  simple  to  complex,  from 
complex  to  more  complex,  from  complex  to  simple. 

4.  From  the  Particular  to  the  General. — We  find,  in  the 
foregoing  chapter,  a  very  definite  confirmation  of  what 
had  previously  been  laid  down  about  this  maxim. 
There  is  the  same  progress  from  the  one  to  the  many, 
and  from  the  knowledge  of  facts  to  a  knowledge  of  the 
reasons  for  them.  But  that  knowledge  of  the  one  which 
suggests,  and  enables  us  finally  to  work  out,  the  higher 
knowledge  of  the  many,  is  now  seen  to  be  itself  a  matter 


400  EDUCATION 

of  gradual  and  systematic  growth,  which  needs  time 
and  care  for  its  successful  cultivation. 

Another  point  also  is  impressed  upon  us.  There  is  a 
second  way  in  which  we  can  be  said  to  move  from  the 
general  to  the  particular.  The  first  way  is  through  the 
purely  rational  process  of  deductive  reasoning.  But 
from  the  practical  point  of  view  the  greater  wholes, 
which  contain  smaller  wholes,  are  often  in  themselves 
a  unity  representing  a  class.  Thus,  to  look  out  upon  a 
forest  is,  in  a  very  implicitly  practical  sense,  to  begin 
with  an  impression  of  a  class.  In  such  cases  it  is  clear 
that  the  movement  of  analysis  is  from  the  general  to 
the  particular. 

But  all  this  is  quite  implicit  from  the  point  of  view 
of  the  beginner ;  and  is  only  worthy  of  notice,  because 
it  involves  the  conditions  through  which  the  educator 
.can  encourage  the  concurrent  development  of  the  ideas 
of  the  general  and  the  particular.  We  previously  drew 
attention  to  the  fact  of  such  a  simultaneous  develop- 
ment being  inevitable ;  and  we  now  see  how  it  can  be 
assisted,  by  arranging  that  the  beginner  shall  have  as 
many  helpful  experiences  of  the  above  kind  as  can  be 
conveniently  provided. 

The  full  statement  of  this  principle  will  be :  From 
the  particular  to  the  particular,  from  particulars  to  the 
general,  from  the  general  to  the  more  general,  and  from 
the  general  to  the  particular. 

Pestalozzi  says  :  "  It  is  a  chief  business  of  education 
to  pass  from  distinctly  perceived  individual  notions  to 
clear  general  notions  "  (De  Garmo).  The  other  point 
of  view  is  expressed  by  Comenius  in  his  maxims.     He 


GENERAL  PRINCIPLES  40  i 

says  :  "Nature  begins  all  its  formation  from  generals, 
and  thence  proceeds  to  specialise  ....  A  painter  in 
painting  a  portrait  does  not  draw  first  the  nose,  then 
the  ears,  etc.,  but  outlines  the  whole  man  on  canvas 
roughly  with  chalk,  and  then  proceeds  to  fill  in.  So 
with  instruction,  the  outline  should  first  be  given." 
"  Everything  should  be  so  taught  as  to  show  how  it  is 
and  becomes — ie,,  per  causas.  Priora  should  come  first, 
and  posteriora  next;  and,  therefore,  whatever  is  pre- 
sented as  an  object  of  knowledge,  should  be  presented 
first  generally,  and  thereafter  in  its  parts.  All  the 
parts  of  a  thing  should  be  known,  even  the  more 
minute,  none  being  omitted :  also  its  order,  situation, 
and  connection  with  other  things  "  (Laurie). 

Dr.  C.  A.  McMurry  remarks  that  "  Perfect  vigour 
of  thought  which  we  aim  at  in  education,  is  marked  by 
strength  along  three  lines — the  vigour  of  the  individual 
ideas ;  the  extent  and  variety  of  ideas  under  control ; 
and  the  connection  and  harmony  of  ideas." 

5.  From  the  Indefinite  to  tne  Definite. — This  is  a  maxim 
with  which  we  have  not  hitherto  dealt.  It  is  peculiarly 
appropriate  to  the  development  of  knowledge,  from  the 
educational  standpoint.  To  get  clear,  distinct,  and 
approximately  adequate  ideas,  we  must  pass,  more  or 
less  slowly,  through  the  obscure,  confused,  and  very 
inadequate,  stages  of  such  ideas. 

Mr.  Herbert  Spencer  has  put  this  matter  very  clearly 
and  convincingly.  He  says :  "The  first  perceptions  and 
thoughts  are  extremely  vaguft.  As  from  a  rudimentary 
eye,  discerning  only  the  difference  between  light  and 
darkness,  the  progress  is  to  an  eye  that  distinguishes 

2o 


402  EDUCATION 

kinds  and  gradations  of  colour,  and  details  of  form,  with 
the  greatest  exactness ;  so,  the  intellect  as  a  whole  and  in 
each  faculty,  beginning  with  the  rudest  discriminations 
among  objects  and  actions,  advances  towards  discrimi- 
nations of  increasing  nicety  and  distinctness.  ...  It 
is  not  practicable,  nor  would  it  be  desirable  if  practic- 
able, to  put  precise  ideas  into  the  undeveloped  mind. 

"  Only  as  the  multiplication  of  experiences  gives 
material  for  definite  conceptions — only  as  observation 
year  by  year  discloses  the  less  conspicuous  attributes 
which  distinguish  things  and  processes  previously 
confounded  together — only  as  each  class  of  co-existences 
and  sequences  become  familiar  through  the  recurrences 
of  cases  coming  under  it — only  as  the  various  classes  of 
relations  get  accurately  marked  off  from  each  other  by 
mutual  limitation ;  can  the  exact  definitions  of  advanced 
knowledge  become  truly  comprehensible. 

"  Thus  in  education  we  must  be  content  to  set  out 
with  crude  notions.  These  we  must  aim  to  make 
gradually  clearer  by  facilitating  the  acquisition  of 
experiences  such  as  will  correct,  first  their  greatest 
errors,  and  afterwards  their  successively  less  marked 
errors.  And  the  scientific  formulas  must  be  given  only 
as  fast  as  the  conceptions  are  perfected." 

The  same  point  is  emphasised  by  Plato  in  what 
appears  to  be  the  contradictory  assertion  that  the  child 
must  be  taught  the  false  before  he  can  learn  the  true. 
But  this  must  not  be  taken  to  mean  that  the  educator 
is  to  deliberately  misrepresent  things  to  the  learner, 
and  get  him  to  learn  that  which  is  known  to  be  false. 
On  the  contrary,  this  is  just  what  the  educator  must 


GENERAL  PRINCIPLES  403 

above  all  things  avoid.  His  chief  function  is  to  help 
the  beginner  to  learn  truth  through  truth  to  the  greatest 
possible  extent.  It  is  because  only  vague  and  superficial 
notions  of  things  can  at  first  be  given  to  the  learner,  and 
that  these  can  only  be  more  or  less  dimly  understood, 
that  misleading  and  false  ideas  are  sure  to  arise  in  the 
ignorant  mind. 

Even  the  most  learned  scientist  is,  at  first,  in  just 
such  a  condition,  when  engaged  in  trying  to  work  out 
new  lines  of  thought  and  action.  And  those  who  have 
had  experience  in  teaching  older  pupils,  and  adults, 
well  know  how  dilBBcult  it  is  to  get  them  to  form  first 
ideas  about  new  knowledge-subjects,  and  how  that  it  is 
still  more  difl&cult  to  correct  the  misleading  sugges- 
tions which  the  misconceptions  of  these  first  notions 
involve. 

Great  caution  ought,  therefore,  to  be  exercised  as  to 
the  use  of  fairy  tales.  By  all  means  let  the  first 
presentations  of  knowledge  be  as  vivid,  graphic,  and 
striking  as  possible ;  but  in  education,  as  elsewhere,  it 
is  the  case  that  truth  is  stranger  than  fiction,  and 
certainly  it  is  vastly  more  helpful.  To  carefully  build 
up  in  the  child's  mind,  when  it  is  in  its  most  receptive, 
responsive,  and  retentive  stage,  just  what  we  know  we 
shall  have  to  endeavour  to  pull  down  again  because  it 
is  unsound,  and  prejudicial  to  that  which  is  accurate  and 
valuable,  is,  to  say  the  least  of  it,  not  very  wise  or 
economical.  As  stories  of  "bogies"  are  often  perma- 
nently disastrous  to  the  moral  nature,  so  are  others 
likely  to  be  to  the  intellectual  powers. 

Children  love  not  fairy  tales  because  they  are  false, 


404  EDUCATION 

but  by  reason  of  their  wonderfulness.  Equally  wonderful 
to  the  child  are  the  stories  of  real  adventure  in  unknown 
lands,  amongst  strange  surroundings,  with  ferocious 
animals  and  savage  men.  The  facts  of  science  may  be 
made  equally  surprising  and  attractive  to  them,  if  they 
are  carefully  presented  with  verbal  picturesqueness  and 
allowable  literary  art. 

A  grave  misconception  as  to  the  educationfJ  signifi- 
cance of  the  history  of  the  race  seems  to  us  to  underlie 
the  ordinary  advocacy  of  the  use  of  ancient  fairy  tales 
and  traditional  folk-lore.  Now,  we  ought  not  to  repeat 
even  the  manner  of  the  racial  development  in  so  far  as 
we  have  reason  to  hold  that  it  has  been  mischievous 
or  undesirable.  Much  less  ought  we  to  repeat  the 
material;  for  this  would  be  to  go  back  to  primitive 
savagery,  both  mentally  and  morally.  Again,  the 
proportion  of  the  lengths  of  the  different  stages  of 
development  in  the  race  are  more  or  less  inversely- 
related  in  the  development  of  the  individual  of  to-day. 
Primitive  man  was,  for  nearly  the  whole  of  his  life,  in 
that  stage  of  development  which  children  of  to-day- 
should  pass  through,  and  in  many  respects  beyond,  in 
their  first  seven  years. 

Just  in  the  same  way  an  adult  of  the  present  time 
will,  as  a  rule,  pass  through  the  perceptual  stage  of  a 
new  knowledge-subject  in  a  fraction  of  the  time  in 
which  a  child  would  do  so;  and,  in  many  cases,  the 
adult  will  be  able,  practically,  to  begin  with  the  con- 
ceptual elements  of  a  fresh  subject. 

If  these  contentions  be  allowed,  it  is  clear  that  there 
aie  several   conditions  which   we   should  insist  upon 


GENERAL   PRINCIPLES  405 

before  making  use  of  the  suggestions  of  racial  develop- 
ment. Much  more  will  these  apply  to  the  ancient 
products  of  racial  development.  First,  then,  we  ought 
to  satisfy  ourselves  that  the  influence  involved  in  the 
telling  of  fairy  tales  is  a  desirable  one.  There  can  be 
but  little,  if  any,  doubt  that  it  is  an  entirely  effective, 
and,  from  that  point  of  view,  a  desirable  one. 
The  excited  interest,  vigorous,  and  even  absorbed, 
attention  which  stories  arouse,  are  the  most  valuable 
and  effective  agents  in  early  development.  We  may 
therefore  accept  thrilling  stories  as  having  an  educational 
place  and  function  in  early  life. 

Next  we  must  consider  to  what  end,  and,  therefore, 
for  what  period,  such  an  influence  should  be  used 
Without  discussing  this  point  in  detail,  we  will  take  it 
as  generally  allowed  that  the  purpose  of  such  stories  is 
to  introduce  a  more  exact  and  serious  knowledge  about 
things.  If  this  be  admitted,  it  will  probably  also  be 
granted  that  their  systematic  use  ought  to  be  discontinued 
so  soon  as  the  powers  of  attention  and  work  become 
somewhat  steady  and  vigorous.  We  should  suggest 
that  this  is  the  case  by  the  seventh  year  at  the  latest. 

Again,  it  is  necessary  to  very  carefully  examine  the 
question  of  the  wisdom  of  employing  very  old  material 
for  our  purposes.  It  must  be  remembered  that  tradi- 
tional folk-lore  represents,  to  a  considerable  extent,  the 
real  beliefs  of  our  forefathers,  due  to  what  we  consider 
to  be  their  gross  ignorance  and  consequent  superstitious- 
ness.  If  this  be  so,  to  invite  children  to  receive  and 
retain  such  material  is  to  subject  them  to  a  lower  form 
of  development,  instead  of  introducing  them  to  a  higher. 


406  RDUCATION 

One  other  very  serious  objection  to  the  use  of  tales 
which  are  in  direct  opposition  to  the  truths  of  nature 
and  knowledge  is  that  their  use  violates  the  maxims: 
from  the  known  to  the  unknown :  and,  from  the  simple 
to  the  complex.  Ordinary  fairy  tales  and  folk-lore  are 
not  only  beyond  a  child's  experience,  but  outside  experi- 
ence altogether.  And  inasmuch  as  they  encourage  the 
personifying  tendency  of  the  little  learner,  they  directly 
lead  to  error,  and  make  the  path  to  truth  very  much 
harder  to  travel. 

If  it  be  urged  that  such  stories  give  special  pleasure 
to  children,  it  may  be  replied  that  experience  shows 
that  equally  attractive  stories  based  upon  actual  facts 
give  just  as  much  present  pleasure,  and  provide  an 
abiding  source  of  further  enjoyment,  instead  of  future 
difficulties.  All  who  have  observed  little  children  will 
know  how  hardly  they  part  from  their  beliefs  in  the 
personality  of  some  of  their  toys,  especially  if  they  have 
been  encouraged  in  what  is  supposed  to  be  their  very 
clever  imaginings,  but  which  are  but  the  mistakes  of 
profound  ignorance. 

That  period  in  the  history  of  the  race  in  which  life, 
personality,  and  intelligent  design — ^as  in  the  human 
being — are  attributed  to  each  of  the  separate  powers 
of  nature,  as  then  known  (which  anthropologists  tech- 
nically speak  of  as  animism),  is  doubtless  an  inevitable 
feature  in  human  development ;  but  these  errors  should 
be  corrected  by  the  better  knowledge  which  we  possess, 
and  not  fostered  by  repeating  that  which  expresses 
original  ignorance. 

The  chief  value  of  the  old  fairy  tales,  traditions,  and 


GENERAL   PRINCIPLES  407 

folk-lore,  is  to  serve  as  models  to  the  educator  as  to  the 
form  in  which  he  may  expect  verbal  communication  to 
be  most  efifective,  in  very  early  years.  As  Dr.  Karl 
Lange  points  out,  the  fairy  tale  involves  no  definite 
limitations  of  time  or  space.  It  is  simply  '*  once  upon 
a  time,"  "  long,  long  ago,"  as  to  when  things  happened ; 
and  there  is,  as  a  rule,  no  definite  place,  or  scene  of 
action;  whilst  fairies  can  transport  themselves  to  the 
uttermost  ends  of  the  earth  in  the  twinkling  of  an  eye. 
These  features  are  not  originally  due  to  a  profound  and 
luxurious  power  of  constructive  imagination,  but  to 
ignorance,  and  want  of  power  to  realise  the  details  and 
relations  of  space,  time,  energy,  and  the  like. 

Here  then  are  the  elements  through  which  we  may 
make  the  very  e«irliest  communications  most  attractive 
and  effective :  strangeness,  wonderf  ulness,  and  magical- 
ness,  in  the  sense  that  the  details  of  the  real  relations 
of  time,  space,  power,  process,  and  sequence,  are  more 
or  less  ignored.  After  all,  therefore,  we  see  that  it  is  the 
element  of  indefiniteness  which  is  the  essential  feature. 
And  this  is  so  because  of  its  appropriateness  to  the 
child's  powers  and  experiences,  and  its  consequent  in- 
ability to  grasp  either  detail  or  dependence.  It  is  the 
manner,  and  not  the  matter,  which  is  of  real  value. 

Surely,  therefore,  the  proper  thing  to  do  is  to  subject 
children  to  the  fairy  tale  material  of  our  own  times  and 
knowledge.  The  fairy  tales  and  wonders  of  science, 
history,  travel,  adventure,  and  the  like,  will,  we  hold, 
satisfy,  in  the  best  form,  every  possible  requirement  of 
the  case.  If  this  be  so,  then  the  period  during  which 
we  seek  to  get  progress  through  proceeding  from  the 


408  EDUCATION 

indefinite  to  the  indefinite,  and  so  gradually  to  the 
definite,  will  be  very  much  shortened.  The  old  method 
is  quite  ofif  the  line  of  approach  to  the  definite,  and, 
therefore,  tends  to  prolong  the  period  of  indefinite 
ideas. 

Plato  has  the  following  on  this  point :  "  Shall  we  just 
carelessly  allow  children  to  hear  any  casual  tales  which 
may  be  devised  by  casual  persons,  and  to  receive  into 
their  minds  ideas  for  the  most  part  the  very  opposite  of 
those  which  we  should  wish  them  to  have  when  they 
are  grown  up?  .  .  .  Then  the  first  thing  will  be  to 
establish  a  censorship  of  the  works  of  fiction,  and  let 
the  censors  receive  any  tale  of  fiction  which  is  good, 
and  reject  the  bad;  and  we  will  desire  mothers  and 
nurses  to  tell  their  children  the  authorised  ones  only. 
Let  them  fashion  the  mind  with  such  tales,  even  more 
fondly  than  they  mould  the  body  with  their  hands; 
but  most  of  those  which  are  now  in  use  must  be  dis- 
carded "  (Dr.  Jowett). 

Broadly  speaking,  we  should  say  that  the  maxim: 
from  the  indefinite  to  the  definite,  requires  that  the 
educator  should  first  endeavour  to  impart  general 
ideas  about  the  more  obvious  and  superficial  features  of 
an  object.  This  should  be  done  by  an  outline  sketch 
of  the  whole.  Not  that  this  is  to  be  supplied  wholly 
by  him.  The  learner  must  tell  all  he  knows,  and  dis- 
cover as  much  more  as  possible,  under  wise  guidance, 
before  communicated  information  is  made  use  of.  This 
involves  the  mastery  of  most  of  the  more  or  less  indefi- 
nite elements  of  knowledge  connected  with  any  given 
unit. 


GENERAL  PRINCIPLES  409 

Next  we  must  make  a  closer  analysis  of  each  of  the 
main  features,  or  constituent  wholes,  and  so  gain  a 
fuller  and  clearer  idea  of  them  and  of  the  unit  whole. 
When  we  have  thus  arrived  at  a  practically  complete 
knowledge  of  the  chief  characteristics  of  each  of  the 
main  features,  or  constituent  wholes,  and  their  concrete 
relations  to  each  other  and  the  total,  we  may  consider 
that  we  possess  definite  ideas  about  the  matter.  Thus 
we  have  progressed  from  the  indefinite  to  the  definite 
in  its  simpler  and  less  profound  form. 

Finally  we  go  on  making  further  and  further  an- 
alyses till  almost  every  practicable  particle,  or  feature, 
of  the  whole  is  known  to  us.  For  arriving  at  such  a 
result,  the  previous,  or  first,  form  of  definite  ideas  is  a 
necessary  condition.  In  this  way  we  proceed  from  the 
definite  to  the  still  more  definite. 

We  have  made  reference  only  to  concrete  ideas,  or 
percepts,  in  describing  the  three  stages,  but  the  same 
order  of  progress  applies  to  the  formation  of  purely 
rational  ideas.  Jf,  will  be  seen,  therefore,  that  the 
maxim  applies  separately,  to  the  concrete  or  perceptual 
form  of  knowledge,  and  likewise  to  the  abstract  or  con- 
ceptual form.  This  is  because  the  stages  of  develop- 
ment are  definitely  repeated  with  regard  to  these ;  as 
they  are  also  repeated,  in  different  proportions  as  to 
the  length  and  intensity  of  each  stage,  in  all  markedly 
new  departures  in  knowledge  during  later  life. 

The  Principle  of  Information. — The  opinion  that  the 
chief,  if  not  sole,  end  of  so-called  education  is  the  im- 
parting of  as  much  information  as  possible  in  a  given 
time,  was  formerly,  and   in  many  cases  is  still,  held. 


410  EDUCATION 

But  this  is  in  direct  conflict  with  the  views  of  educa- 
tion which  we  have  contended  for.  Yet  the  view  that 
as  much  information  as  possible  should  be  given,  is 
by  no  means  entirely  excluded  from  having  a  proper 
place  and  function  in  a  scientific  system  of  educative 
development.  For  we  can  only  educate  through 
information,  experiential  and  verbal,  and  the  more 
knowledge  we  can  impart  the  better.  Whenever  in- 
formation is  really  imparted  more  or  less  educational 
development  must  result,  whether  this  be  designed  and 
systematic,  or  incidental  and  unmethodical.  Hence 
the  greater  the  amount  of  information  imparted,  within 
reasonable  limits,  the  larger  will  be  the  resulting 
development. 

Herbart  expresses  the  connection  between  education 
and  information  thus  :  "  I  have  no  conception  of  edu- 
cation without  instruction,  just  as,  conversely,  in  this 
book  at  least,  I  do  not  acknowledge  any  instruction 
which  does  not  educate.  Whatever  arts  and  acquire- 
ments a  young  man  may  learn  fron^  a  teacher  for  the 
mere  sake  of  profit,  are  as  indifferent  to  the  educator  as 
the  colour  he  chooses  for  his  coat.  But  how  his  circle 
of  thought  is  being  formed  is  everything  to  the  teacher, 
for  out  of  thoughts  come  feelings,  and  from  them  prin- 
ciples and  modes  of  action. 

"  To  think  out  in  relation  to  this  chain  of  develop- 
ment each  and  everything  that  can  be  offered  to  the 
pupil  and  find  a  place  in  his  mind,  to  inquire  how  each 
is  connected  with  the  whole,  how  one  part  must  follow 
another,  and  again  become  a  link  to  that  which  succeeds 
— this,  applied  to  the  treatment  of  individual  objects. 


GENERAL   PRINCIPLES  411 

affords  an  infinite  number  of  problems  to  the  teacher, 
and  also  unlimited  material,  by  the  help  of  whicli  he 
can  ceaselessly  think  over  and  criticise  all  the  know- 
ledge and  works  accessible,  as  well  as  all  the  principal 
occupations  and  exercises  he  must  carry  on." 

The  great  difference  between  the  educationist  and 
the  informationist  is  that  the  former  regards  the  im- 
parting of  information,  in  the  first  place,  as  only  a 
means  of  education,  though  finally  as  an  end ;  whilst 
the  latter  always  regards  it  as  an  end,  and  looks  upon 
education  as  being  merely  the  giving  of  information, 
or  rather  offering  the  individual  an  opportunity  of  ap- 
propriating it,  if  he  can.  The  educationist  asks :  How 
can  I  so  impart  information  that  it  shall  draw  out, 
exercise,  develop,  and  improve  the  mental  powers,  and 
thus  make  the  learner  able  to  acquire  knowledge  in 
the  most  easy  and  effective  way;  but  the  informa- 
tionist only  concerns  himself  with  the  endeavour  to 
thrust  upon  the  individual  as  much  information  as  it 
seems  advisable  for  him  to  have.  The  educationist  is 
ever  striving  to  secure  development  by  his  work ;  but 
the  mere  informationist  is  only  educative  in  so  far  as 
he  cannot  avoid  it,  and  is  driven  to  make  use  of 
educational  processes  by  the  inevitable  necessities  of 
the  case. 

We  may,  therefore,  say  that  education  proper  pre- 
pares for  the  adequate  reception  of  information,  as 
such;  and  that  appropriate  information,  as  such, 
should,  as  a  rule,  be  given  only  when  the  powers  and 
processes  necessary  for  its  most  effective  appropriation 
have  been  satisfactorily  developed.     In  other  words. 


412  EDUCATION 

the  time  to  give  information,  at  least  to  any  consider- 
able extent,  otherwise  than  as  directly  necessary  to 
illustrate  the  details  in  educative  processes,  is  when 
the  learner  has  acquired,  through  systematic  educational 
influences,  the  power  to  apply  knowledge  obtained  to 
the  solution  of  problems,  the  interpretation  of  the  ex- 
periences of  others,  and  the  invention  of  more  or  less 
simple  forms. 

When  the  learner  is  thus  able  to  deal  with  informa- 
tion, as  such,  the  more  he  is  provided  with  the  better, 
so  long  as  it  does  not  injuriously  interrupt  a  proper 
rate  of  progress.  For  in  this  way  the  mind  is  richly 
stored  with  material  which  is  always  helpful  to  the 
fuller  and  freer  interpretation  of  both  old  and  new- 
forms  of  knowledge,  as  well  as  being  a  pleasurable  and 
profitable  possession  in  other  directions.  Also  the 
novelty  thus  provided  is  demanded  by  the  principle 
of  interest  as  a  constant  stimulus  to,  and  reward  for, 
vigorous  attention  and  reproductive  and  constructive 
efiPort. 

Further,  this  is  necessary  to  the  proper  progress  of 
knowledge.  A  wearisome  repetition  of  the  same  small 
circle  of  knowledge  as  based  upon  experience,  is  likely, 
in  the  long  run,  to  prove  comparatively  barren  and 
unsatisfactory  with  respect  to  the  total  development. 
Whilst  it  is  absolutely  essential  that  education  must 
begin  within  the  sphere  of  present  experience  and 
knowledge,  it  is  not  less  important  that  it  should 
gradually  extend  to  knowledge  more  and  more  remote 
from  the  actual  environment  and  personal  experience. 
Information  is  an  important  and  valuable  means  of 


GENERAL  PJUNCIPLES  413 

securing  this  extension ;  and  rational  inference  is  the 
only  other  means  of  so  doing. 

Information  which  is  thus  given,  should,  to  a  large 
extent,  be  of  the  greatest  possible  practical  utility.  As 
was  pointed  out  in  the  discussion  on  the  element  of 
the  "  utility  value "  of  educative  forms  of  knowledge, 
practical  life  is,  in  many  respects,  the  starting-point 
and  goal  of  knowledge.  It  is  as  necessary,  therefore, 
as  it  is  pleasurable  and  profitable,  to  relate  our  know- 
ledge as  closely  and  extensively  as  possible  with  our 
lives.  We  cannot  escape  doing  this,  to  a  very  con- 
siderable extent ;  and  it  is  allowable  and  advisable  that 
we  should  seek  to  do  it  in  every  reasonable  way. 

Dr.  Bain  says,  of  the  ordinary  facts  of  knowledge :  "  In 
BO  far  as  they  are  devoid  of  connection  and  system,  they 
are  information  solely.  In  so  far  as  they  can  be  em- 
bodied in  an  orderly  scheme — a  descriptive  method, 
which  facilitates  both  the  recollection  and  the  under- 
standing of  them,  they  rise  to  some  sort  of  training. 
They  require  the  pupils  to  master  the  scheme,  and  so 
give  them  possession  of  it,  as  an  art  that  they  may 
themselves  employ  in  dealing  with  similar  detail."  It 
is  this  power  which  comes  from  drilling  in  the  art  of 
systemising  which  makes  the  learning  of  Latin  so 
valuable  a  mental  training. 

"  All  those  facts  that  relate  to  useful  operation  in  the 
arts  of  life,  that  serve  to  guide  artificers  in  their  work, 
and  to  instruct  every  one  how  to  obtain  desirable  ends, 
constitute  a  vast  body  of  useful  information.  The 
recipes  of  cookery,  the  arts  of  industry  and  of  manu- 
facture, the  cure  of  disease,  the  procedure  in  courts  of 


414  EDUCATION 

law,  are  most  valuable  as  information ;  but  they  are 
not  regarded  as  giving  us  any  form  of  discipline.  .  .  . 

*'  Nevertheless,  it  is  not  a  low  order  of  intelligence 
that  has  taken  in,  remembered,  and  is  able  to  apply 
an  extensive  stock  of  maxims  of  practice  and  utility 
in  various  departments.  There  may  not  be  anything 
amounting  to  high  discipline,  but  there  is  an  expendi- 
ture of  good  intellectual  force.  The  higher  the  cha- 
racter of  the  work,  the  more  scope  is  there  for  fine 
discrimination  or  accurate  perception,  in  order  to  suit 
means  to  the  end  ....  and  when  we  touch  the  higher 
degrees,  we  come  upon  something  that  involves  the  best 
faculties  or  forces  of  the  mind. 

*'  The  truth  is,  that  for  the  higher  professions  the 
extent  of  practical  knowledge  is  such  that  it  cannot  be 
comprehended,  held  together,  or  rendered  sufl&ciently 
precise,  unless  we  have  a  certain  amount  of  science  and 
scientific  method,  such  as  would  probably  come  within 
the  scope  of  discipline." 

The  high  mental  value,  and  great  practical  import- 
ance of  information,  as  such,  must  not  be  lost  sight  of 
in  education.  But  it  should  be  remembered  that  the 
mind  which  has  not  had  its  powers  and  skill  first  de- 
veloped is  either  lumbered  or  crushed  with  a  mass  of 
material.  Not  information  but  power  to  use  it  is  the 
first  aim  of  education.  As  Locke  puts  it :  "  The  busi- 
ness of  education  is  not,  as  I  think,  to  make  the  young 
perfect  in  any  one  of  the  sciences,  but  so  to  open  and 
dispose  their  minds  as  may  best  make  them  capable  of 
any  when  tliey  shall  apply  themselves  to  it." 

The  great  danger  to  be  avoided  is  what  has  been 


GENERAL   PRINCIPLES  415 

called  encyclopsedism,  or,  as  old  writers  on  education 
termed  it,  pansophism.  Strangely  enough,  Comenius, 
great  thinker  though  he  was,  believed  in  pansophism. 
"Let  all  the  arts  and  sciences,"  he  said,  *'  be  taught  in 
their  elements  in  all  schools,  and  more  fully  at  each 
successive  stage  of  the  pupil's  progress.  It  is  by  know- 
ledge that  we  are  what  we  are,  and  the  necessary  con- 
clusion from  this  must  be, '  Let  all  things  be  taught  to 
air  "  (Laurie). 

Professor  Laurie  remarks  on  this  passage:  "The 
mind  stored  with  facts,  even  if  these  be  ordered  facts, 
will  not  necessarily  be  much  raised  in  the  scale  of 
humanity  as  an  intelligence.  The  natural  powers  may 
be  simply  overweighted  by  the  process,  and  the  natural 
channels  of  spontaneous  reason  choked." 

Speaking  of  the  curriculum  of  the  American  schools 
of  to-day.  Dr.  C.  A.  McMurry  says :  "  Children  have 
too  much  to  learn.     They  become  pack-horses,  instead 

of  free  spirits  walking  in  the  fields  of  knowledge 

The  cultivation  therefore,  of  a  many-sided  interest 
ceases  to  be  a  blessing  as  encyclopaedic  knowledge 
becomes  its  aim."  He  adds  that  we  must  not  identify 
"  many-sided  interest  with  encyclopaedic  knowledge,  but 
[with]  such  a  detailed  study  of  typical  forms  in  each^ 
case  as  will  give  insight  into  that  branch  without  any 
pretension  to  exhaustive  knowledge." 

But  culture  value  in  information  must  not  be  neglected, 
for  this  makes  life  richer  and  more  delightful  to  the 
individual,  and  to  the  community.  This  should,  there- 
fore, be  freely  supplied  through  appropriate  subjects. 
The  giving  of  such  through  appropriate  subjects  is  a 


416  EDUCATION 

very  important  condition ;  for,  we  submit,  to  use  some 
of  the  choicest  extracts  of  the  great  literary  classics  for 
the  purpose  of  grammatical  analysis,  parsing,  and,  above 
all,  of  paraphrase,  is  much  more  likely  to  prevent  the 
possibility  of  getting  any  culture  influence  from  them 
than  to  obtain  even  a  suggestion  of  it.  It  is  not  by 
mechanically  pulling  artistic  wholes  to  pieces  that  we 
realise  their  aesthetic  beauties.  Literature  should  be 
presented  as  literature,  and  not  as  grammar,  composition, 
etymology,  archaeology,  or  history. 

So  also  the  culture  elements  in  history  and  geography 
must  be  kept  quite  clear  from  the  more  technical  aspects, 
if  they  are  to  have  their  proper  culture  effect.  Similarly, 
with  respect  to  music  and  colour-work,  there  must  be 
definite  efforts  to  secure  the  realisation  of  the  purely 
asthetic  values  of  a  song  or  a  picture,  apart  from  the 
technical  details  which  are  necessary  for  the  production 
of  the  actual  results.  It  is  true  that  the  more  fully  the 
practical  details  are  understood  the  deeper  and  truer 
the  purely  artistic  appreciation  is  likely  to  be;  but 
the  two  things  are  distinct,  as  is  shown  by  the  fact 
that  persons  with  really  no  technical  knowledge  often 
have  the  keenest  possible  appreciation  of  art,  whilst 
.  there  are  those  who  have  learnt  to  produce  the  mechan- 
ical effects  of  art  but  are  quite  without  real  artistic 
feeling. 

We  can  now  estimate  more  accurately  the  exact  place 
and  functions  of  institutions  for  students  who  are  about 
eighteen  years  of  age,  and  upwards.  If  such  students 
have  been  subjected  to  an  ordinarily  full  course  of  scien- 
tific education  during  their  childhood  and  youth,  they 


GENERAL  PRINCIPLES  417 

are  no  longer  either  in  need  of,  or  suitable  for,  the  usual 
processes  of  education  as  carried  on  by  a  formal  educator. 
The  individual  ought  to  have  arrived,  fully  equipped, 
at  the  stage  of  self-education.  All  that  is  necessary, 
therefore,  should  be  the  supplying  of  appropriate,  accu- 
rate, and  advanced  information. 

Hence  one  of  the  chief  functions  of  such  institutions 
as  universities,  university  colleges,  technical  colleges, 
and  all  places  of  learning  of  these  kinds,  is  to  provide 
the  most  complete  and  profound  forms  of  information. 
We  may  say  that  all  such  as  these  should  be  places 
whose  function  is  informational  rather  than  educational. 
Nevertheless,  it  is  as  necessary  in  them,  as  elsewhere, 
that  information  should  be  presented  in  a  scientifically 
educational  way,  if  the  student  is  to  derive  the  greatest 
and  highest  good  from  it. 

But  the  very  highest  function  of  such  institutions  is 
to  encourage,  provide  for,  and  assist  the  student  in  that 
self-education  which  seeks  to  develop  the  productive 
and  inventive  ability  to  its  best  form.  Hence  research, 
investigation,  experiment,  scientific  theorisation,  inven- 
tion, and  constructive  and  destructive  criticism,  should 
be  well  provided  for  at  such  centres. 

The  Principle  of  Symbolism. — From  the  point  of  view 
of  progress  in  knowledge,  language  is  something  upon 
which  we  must  constantly  exercise  severe  and  search- 
ing criticism.  But  it  is  also,  in  its  relation  to  logic,  an 
instrument  of  criticism,  for  in  so  far  as  words — whose 
content  of  meaning  is  for  the  time  being  a  known  and 
fixed  quantity — will  fit  into  certain  verbal  forms,  and 
fulfil  the  proper  logical  laws,  they  thereby  prove  them- 

2d 


418  EDUCATION 

selves  to  be  worthy  of  rational  credence,  or  otherwise 
with  respect  to  definite  inferences  and  implications. 

In  so  far  as  the  self-consistency  of  the  verbal  ex- 
pression of  judgments  is  concerned,  we  can  test  this 
by  the  laws  of  deductive  logic  For  example:  if  a 
writer  argued  that  all  boys  are  mischievous,  later  on 
mentioned  that  all  boys  are  scholars,  and  finally  con- 
cluded by  asserting  that  it  followed  from  what  he  had 
said  that  all  scholars  are  mischievous,  logic  would  show 
that  the  very  words  which  are  used  do  not  allow  of 
such  a  conclusion.  In  the  first  two  judgments  there 
is  no  implication  of  all  scholars,  and,  therefore,  there 
is  in  them  no  justification  for  making  any  judgment 
about  all  scholars. 

The  educator  must  demonstrate  such  principles  as 
these  in  simple  and  concrete  cases,  so  that  the  learner 
may  be  able  to  guard  himself  from  the  dangers  of 
language.  Since,  in  his  early  years,  the  learner  is 
unable  to  grasp  logical  principles,  as  such,  he  should 
be  drilled  in  what  we  may  call  concrete  logic,  of  a 
simple  and  practically  useful  kind.  For  example, 
that  great  type  of  all  syllogistic,  or  deductive,  reason- 
ing, which  is  involved  in  the  following :  all  money  is 
useful;  all  farthings  are  money;  therefore,  all  far- 
things are  useful ;  should  be  concretely  demonstrated. 
Let  there  be  provided  four  convenient  boxes  labelled, 
"  all  money,"  *'  useful,"  "  all  farthings,"  and  "  money." 

Then  the  boxes  may  be  placed  near  to  each  other, 
and  connected  by  pieces  of  cardboard  on  which  the 
predicate  word  is  written.  Thus  could  be  arranged 
a  concrete  form  of  the  first  two  sentences.     Next  the 


GENERAL   PRINCIPLES  419 

learner  should  be  led  to  see  that  since  the  farthings  are 
said  to  be  money  there  is  no  reason  why  they  should 
not  be  put  in  the  box  in  the  first  line.  So  also  with 
regard  to  the  box  labelled  "  money  "  in  the  second  line. 
But  this  is  only  possible  in  that  the  box  on  the  first 
line  is  said  to  represent  "  all  money."  If  it  had  been 
"some  money"  the  case  would  be  different.  This 
point  could  be  worked  out  more  fully  afterwards,  and 
thus  other  forms  of  syllogisms  ^peould  be  demonstrated. 

When  things  have  been  arranged  as  just  suggested, 
it  will  be  quite  clear  that  all  farthings  may  be  said  to 
be  useful.  It  is  true  that  this  kind  of  demonstration 
gives  an  almost  purely  quantitative,  or  class  meaning, 
to  syllogistic  reasoning ;  but  there  is  no  real  objection 
to  this,  since  it  is  certainly  the  only  way  in  which  it 
can  be  intelligently  understood  in  the  percept  period ; 
and  such  a  form  of  it  leads  up  to  the  conceptual  usage. 

If  it  be  agreed  that  such  a  process  is  likely  to  prove 
helpful  to  the  learner,  by  forming  habits  of  scientifi- 
cally critical  thought,  then  it  ought  to  be  regularly 
provided  for,  at  least  in  the  finishing  exercises  of  each 
important  stage  of  development.  Much  more  ought 
the  principles  of  logic  to  be  a  conscious  possession  and 
power  in  the  case  of  the  self-educator. 

Some  practical  knowledge  of  the  inductive  canons 
of  criticism  should  also  be  given.  Especially  should 
this  be  the  case  if  we  accept  the  conclusion  that  some 
form  of  natural  science  knowledge  ought  to  be  the  first 
to  be  imparted  to  the  young  mind.  Nothing  is  more 
necessary,  or  likely  to  be  more  helpful,  than  to  get  the 
youthful  thinker  to  recognise,  in  however  simple  and 


420  EDUCATION 

practical  a  form,  that  there  may  often  be,  and  gener- 
ally is,  a  plurality  of  causes  for  a  given  effect;  and, 
therefore,  the  real  problem  is  to  satisfy  ourselves  that, 
in  a  particular  instance,  it  is,  and  can  be,  only  such- 
and-such  a  cause  which  is  actually  present.  This 
involves  an  application  of  the  logical  "  method  of  differ- 
ence." 

To  give  a  very  simple  example:  an  inkstand  may 
have  been  left  on  a  table  in  the  schoolroom  at  the  eud 
of  morning  school,  and  at  the  beginning  of  the  afternoon 
work  it  may  be  found  lying  on  the  floor,  near  the  table, 
and  broken  to  pieces.  An  inquiry  may  be  undertaken 
as  to  how  this  came  about.  Even  very  young  children 
would  be  able  to  suggest  several  possible  causes,  such 
as:  someone  purposely  threw  it  down;  it  was  acci- 
dentally knocked  down  by  a  pupil  when  passing  the 
table ;  it  was  pushed  down  when  some  books  were  put 
on  the  table;  the  table  has  been  moved,  and  it  was 
shaken  off;  there  has  been  a  heavy  storm  of  wind, 
and  it  was  blown  off  when  the  school  door  was  opened ; 
and  so  on.  So  much  will  be  quite  sufficient  to  impress 
the  fact  of  the  plurality  of  causes,  and  the  need  of 
sufficient  reasons  for  asserting  that  it  was  such-and-such 
a  cause  which  has  led  to  the  given  effect. 

Next  as  to  which  is  to  be  considered  the  active  cause 
in  this  case.  Let  us  suppose  that  it  can  be  shown  that 
the  inkstand  was  seen  to  be  quite  safe  and  sound  on 
the  table  five  minutes  before  the  beginning  of  afternoon 
school,  and  that  no  one  entered  the  room  during  that 
five  minutes.  Further,  that  when  the  door  was  opened 
there  occurred  a  very  violent  gust  of  wind,  which  swept 


GENERAL   PRINCIPLES  421 

through  the  room.  Clearly,  then,  the  only  element  of 
difference  which  can  account  for  the  change  in  the 
position  and  state  of  the  inkstand  is  the  force  of  the 
gust  of  wind.  And  it  is  known,  from  actual  experi- 
ence and  experiment,  that  the  wind  is  able  to  do  such 
things.  Therefore  we  conclude  without  hesitation,  and 
with  full  rational  certainty,  that  the  wind  was  the  cause 
of  the  fall  of  the  inkstand. 

Thus  we  demonstrate,  in  a  very  simple  and  common- 
place way,  the  logical  "method  of  difference,"  as 
involved  in  a  practical  form  of  inductive  reasoning. 
Later  on  in  the  child's  development  more  technical 
applications  of  the  rule  can  be  made,  in  its  studies  of 
the  phenomena  of  natural  science. 

In  this  way  language  has  become  an  instrument  of 
scientific  criticism  of  thought,  through  its  inseparable 
connection  with  it,  and  through  the  original  activities 
of  thought  criticism  which  it  expresses  and  records,  and 
which,  expressed  in  technical  forms,  serve  as  mechani- 
cal means  of  testing  the  accuracy  and  reliability  of  a 
particular  reasoning.  More  and  more  of  the  logical 
principles,  in  concrete  ap:lications,  could  be  given  as 
the  powers  of  the  pupil  develop,  and  as  occasion  offers  ; 
until  he  is  finally  introduced  to  the  study  of  logic,  as 
such. 

Language  has  reached  its  highest  uses  when  it  thus 
becomes  a  means  by  which  thought  consciously  checks 
and  corrects  itself.  This  function  of  symbolism  should 
be  made  use  of  at  the  very  earliest  moment,  and  its  full 
and  explicit  employment  gradually  and  systematically 
developed.     The  full  significance  and  value  of  this  can 


422  EDUCATION 

only  be  shown  by  a  complete  discussion  of  the  relations 
between  logic  and  education. 

One  of  the  most  important  points  to  be  observed  in 
the  use  of  language  is  that  of  proper  gradation.  Words 
which  are  quite  familiar  to  the  hearer,  and  which  are 
used  in  a  sense  equally  familiar  to  him,  are  the  only 
suitable  ones  for  imparting  full  and  significant  know- 
ledge. Very  great  care  and  art,  are,  therefore,  neces- 
sary in  introducing  new  words,  or  groupings  of  words, 
which  involve  new  significations.  Very  full  material 
and  opportunity  for  associating  the  sign  and  its  signifi- 
cance must  be  provided. 

Gradation  in  language  means,  of  course,  gradation  in 
the  thought  which  it  symbolises.  It  is  seldom  that  the 
form  of  a  word,  as  such,  is  difiicult  to  remember,  but  the 
content  of  meaning  is  very  often  so.  Dr.  Abbott  re- 
marks : "  The  *  In  Memoriam '  is  written  mainly  in  mono- 
syllables ;  yet  there  is  in  it  little  which  a  child  could 

thoroughly  understand But  give  a  boy  a  piece 

of  description,  narrative,  or  stirring  incident,  and  you 
will  find  that  long  words  will  create  little  diflBculty." 
Mr.  Welldon  insists  on  the  same  truth  in  arguing  that 
boys  are  allowed  to  begin  the  study  of  Shakespeare  at 
too  early  an  age.  He  says  that,  in  his  own  case,  he 
attributes  the  small  pleasure  he  derived  from  his  first 
reading  of  "Hamlet,"  as  compared  with  the  intense 
delight  which  he  obtained  from  his  first  reading  of 
"  Fanst,"  to  the  fact  that  he  was  too  young  when  he 
rei^tl  the  former. 

Ill  connection  with  the  above  we  may  discuss  the 
place  of  books  in  educational  work.     The  right  use  of 


GENERAL  PRINCIPLES  423 

books  in  education  is  by  no  means  a  simple  or  easy 
matter  to  decide.  Perhaps  the  most  essential  point  to  be 
considered  is  the  fact  that  books  are,  primarily,  records. 
They  are,  in  themselves,  dead  voices,  and,  except  under 
very  favourable  conditions  of  interpretation  by  the 
living  voice  of  an  expert,  they  are  liable  to  all  the  mis- 
constructions which  the  ambiguity  of  language,  the 
literary  style  of  the  author,  and  the  ignorance  of  readers 
can  conjointly  perpetrate. 

There  is  no  possibility  of  making  the  book  say  exactly 
what  it  means  by  such-and-such  statements :  of  obtain- 
ing from  it  more  detailed  exposition,  or  fuller  demon- 
stration :  or  of  securing  from  it  a  reply  to  individual 
objections  to  the  assertions  it  contains.  It  simply  con- 
tains so  much  matter,  of  which  the  reader  is  left  to 
make  the  best,  or  worst,  use  that  he  can.  All  this  must 
always  be  true  of  every  book,  except  in  so  far  as  the 
reader  has  been  carefully  and  wisely  prepared  for 
rightly  using  and  understanding  a  particular  book. 
That  is,  the  principle  of  preparation  is  an  essential  con- 
dition to  the  best  use  of  books  for  educational  purposes. 

Books,  as  educational  agencies,  should  primarily  re- 
present the  best  forma  of  summaries  and  records  of 
knowledge,  gained  in  the  usual  way.  To  this  end  the 
first  books  should  be  the  direct  outcome  of  lessons,  and 
the  student's  own  efforts.  In  other  words,  the  learner 
must  make  and  use  his  own  books  before  he  is  allowed 
to— or,  indeed,  can  profitably — make  use  of  those  made 
by  others.  This  must  be  true,  if  what  we  have  pre- 
viously said  about  the  use  of  words  be  correct. 

Let  us  illustrate  this  by  an  example.     The  earliest 


424  EDUCATION 

formal  and  systematic  lesson  on  a  natural  object — in 
the  later  stages  of  kindergarten  work — will  necessarily 
be  a  language  lesson  as  well  as  a  thought  and  informa- 
tion lesson.  The  new  words  introduced  should  be 
written  on  the  blackboard ;  the  sentences  in  which  they 
are  properly  used  should  also  be  so  recorded ;  and  these 
sentences  ought  to  be  combined  so  as  to  form  a  simple 
narrative.  Thus  the  blackboard  is  the  earliest  form  of 
the  book,  for  formal  educational  purposes.  In  this  way 
we  proceed  from  experiences  to  ideas,  from  ideas  to 
expressions,  and  from  expressions  to  records. 

When  the  purpose  and  significance  of  books  have 
thus  become  real  and  familiar,  they  may  be  used  as 
substitutes  for  the  learner's  own  records,  to  expand 
them,  and,  finally,  to  supplant  them ;  and  even  to  intro- 
duce a  new  subject,  when  the  stage  of  regressive  advance 
has  been  reached.  We  may  say,  therefore,  that,  except  in 
the  very  latest  stage  of  ordinary  school  education,  the 
text-book  should  invariably  be  used  as  a  convenient  record 
and  summary  of  the  results  of  concrete  demonstrations 
and  oral  instruction.  Its  proper  use  is  to  serve  for 
purposes  of  revision,  and  not  of  introduction,  much  less 
as  a  substitute  for  experience  and  demonstration.  As 
Mr.  H.  G.  Wells  insists,  in  his  lecture  on  science  teach- 
ing :  "  Above  all,  except  in  the  upper  forms,  there 
would  be  no  text-book.  Each  pupil  would  build  up  his 
own  in  his  note-book  as  he  proceeded." 

The  chief  function  of  books,  in  education,  is  to  be  an 
aid  to  self-education,  Mr.  Wells  urges  that:  "The 
ideal  school  should  have  a  good  library  ....  and  therein 
would  be  all  the  big  science  text-books  ....  and  to 


GENERAL   PRINCIPLES  425 

these  the  boy  or  girl  in  the  higher  forms  would  go  for 
facts  and  discussions,  guided  at  first  by  references  pro- 
vided by  the  teacher.  In  this  way  the  ability  to  use 
books  intelligently,  and  to  work  alone,  would  be 
acquired." 

It  may  be  remarked  here  that  the  purely  literary  read- 
ing-book should — except  as  the  records  of  stories  told 
orally,  in  prose  or  verse — follow  the  properly  descrip- 
tive and  informational  reading-book,  at  each  stage  of  de- 
velopment. And  this  because  its  eflfective  use  can  only 
thus  be  properly  provided  for ;  and,  also,  because  the 
aesthetic  powers  to  which  it  ministers  are  later  in  their 
development. 

We  must  remember  that  want  of  exactness  in  the  use 
of  words  will  tend  to  bring  about  inaccuracy  in  thought. 
Dr.  Sully  emphasises  this  fact,  and  urges  that  the 
learner  "  Should  be  well  practised  from  the  first  in  ex- 
plaining the  words  he  employs.  It  is  of  great  import- 
ance to  see  that  a  child  never  employs  any  word  with- 
out attaching  some  intelligible  meaning  to  it.  He 
should  be  questioned  as  to  his  meaning,  and  prove  him- 
self able  to  give  concrete  instances  or  examples  of  the 
notion,  and  (where  possible)  to  define  his  term,  roughly 
at  least." 

The  Principle  of  Gradation. — A  truth  which  has  been 
forced  upon  us  with  special  emphasis  during  the  pre- 
vious discussions  is :  that  development  is  very  gradual 
both  in  quality,  quantity,  and  kind.  Again  and  again, 
we  have  had  to  urge  the  need  of  the  most  caieful  con- 
sideration being  given  to  the  securing  of  the  right  order, 
amount,  and  time,  for  the  various  developing  influences. 


426  EDUCATION 

Educators  might  well  have  as  their  mottoes :  "  Make 
haste  slowly  " ;  and  "  Precept  upon  precept,  precept  upon 
precept ;  line  upon  line,  line  upon  line ;  here  a  little, 
and  there  a  little."  There  is  no  principle  in  the  whole 
range  of  the  science  of  education  which  is  of  greater 
importance  than  this.  Too  much,  or  too  little,  of 
stimulation,  nourishment,  and  exercise :  too  rapid,  or 
too  slow,  a  rate  of  advance  :  or  too  spasmodic,  and  too 
violent,  bursts  of  development,  must  mean  a  warped,  or 
dwarfed,  development. 

Eousseau  has  the  following  passages  in  his  "  Emile." 
"  May  I  venture  to  state  here  the  greatest,  the  most 
important,  the  most  useful  rule  in  all  education  ?  It  is 
not  to  gain  time  but  to  lose  it.  Forgive  the  paradox,  O 
my  ordinary  reader !  It  must  be  uttered  by  any  one  who 
reflects,  and  whatever  you  may  say,  I  prefer  paradoxes 

to  prejudices Listen  to  a  little  fellow  who  has 

just  been  under  instruction.  Let  hini  prattle,  question, 
blunder,  just  as  he  pleases,  and  you  will  be  surprised  at 
the  turn  your  reasonings  have  taken  in  his  mind.  He 
confounds  one  thing  with  another ;  he  reverses  every- 
thing; he  tires  you,  sometimes  worries  you,  by  un- 
expected objections.  He  forces  you  to  hold  your  peace, 
or  to  make  him  hold  his." 

Very  much,  therefore,  depends  upon  the  clear  and 
complete  understanding  of  what  is  involved  in  this 
principle,  and  we  can  hardly  spend  too  much  time  or 
effort  in  the  endeavour  to  thoroughly  grasp  its  nature 
and  implications.  A  great  deal  has  already  been  said 
about  it,  since  it  is  but  a  special  aspect  of  the  general 
principle  of  development.     That  is,  the  principle  seeks 


GENERAL  PRINCIPLES  427 

to  secure  in  the  educative  influences  a  development 
coinciding  as  nearly  as  possible,  and  co-operatiog,  with 
what  we  believe  to  be  the  proper  development  ul  mind. 

We  will  briefly  recall  what  has  been  previously  said 
about  this  principle.  When  dealing  with  the  principle 
of  stimulation,  we  urged  that  the  quantity,  proportion, 
and  duration  of  influences  and  re-actions,  must  be  pro- 
perly regulated.  Similarly,  the  quality  and  quantity  of 
nourishment  must  be  appropriate.  The  principle  of 
preparation  inay  be  regarded  as  a  specially  systemised 
effort  in  gradation,  in  that  it  involves  a  deliberate  and 
thorough  provision  for  the  easy  and  right  reception  and 
appreciation  of  experiences. 

The  great  central  and  fundamental  principle  of  de- 
velopment may  be  described  as  a  principle  of  gradation. 
It  enforces  and  emphasises  the  great  truth  of  the 
necessity  of  proceeding  in  certain  definite  orders. 
Gradation  is  the  burden >pf  the  maxims:  from  the  con- 
crete to  the  concrete :  from  the  concrete  to  the  abstract : 
from  the  abstract  to  the  concrete.  So  also  with  the 
other  practical  rules,  and  the  educational  meaning  which 
they  possess ;  they  all  insist  upon  the  need  of  grada- 
tion. 

But  the  most  explicit  and  emphatic  statement  of  the 
essential  feature  of  the  principle  is  contained  in  what 
has  been  said  about  the  maxim :  from  the  simple  to  the 
complex.  In  the  several  discussions  of  this  maxim,  we 
have  constantly  insisted  upon  the  necessity  of  observing 
the  order  of  greatest  simplicity,  because  complexity  is 
the  chief  element  of  difficulty  to  both  mind  and  body. 
Professor  L.  C.  Miall  remarks  :  "  Whatever  subject  you 


428  EDUCATION 

handle,  go  for  simplicity  of  impression.     If  you  bring 
in  many  details,  make  them  help  one  another." 

So,  again,  the  principles  of  doing,  sympathetic  con- 
trol, analysis  and  synthesis,  and  symbolism,  all  involve, 
imply,  and  explicate,  the  idea  of  gradual  increase  in 
kind  and  degree  of  the  processes  and  produces  of 
development.  All  the  concrete  examples  and  illus- 
trations of  these  principles  which  have  been  given 
show  in  detail  how  the  elements  of  gradation  have  to 
be  provided  for. 

We  may  sum  up  the  significance  of  these,  by  saying 
that  the  principle  of  gradation  must  provide  for  the 
careful  observance  of  the  following  features  in  any 
system  of  developing  influences.  First,  they  must,  at 
each  stage,  correspond,  as  exactly  as  possible,  with  the 
nature  and  vigour  of  the  actual  developing  powers, 
so  that,  whilst  providing  for,  and  encouraging  those 
powers  which  may  be  expected  to  immediately  follow, 
they  may  not  prevent  or  pervert  those  which  are  ex- 
plicitly developing. 

Secondly,  they  must  change  in  their  kind  and  degree 
according  to  the  significant  changes  in  the  development 
of  the  individual.  This  is  a  very  wide  condition,  and 
embraces  all  that  is  implied  in  the  progress  from  the 
known  to  the  unknown,  the  simple  to  the  complex,  the 
concrete  to  the  abstract,  childhood  to  manhood,  ignor- 
ance to  knowledge,  weakness  to  strength,  inability  and 
awkwardness  to  capacity  and  facility,  and  so  on. 

Besides  these  there  are  other  points  about  which  it 
will  be  well  to  say  a  few  words.  We  have  before  dwelt 
upon  the  need  of  clearness  in  overcoming  the  difficulty 


GENEBAL  PRINCIPLES  429 

presented  by  a  complex.  But  this  point  is  deserving  of 
further  notice.  Dr.  De  Garmo  deals  with  it  under  the 
term  "  the  law  of  successive  clearness."  He  speaks  of 
the  need  of  a  certain  amount  of  time  for  presentations 
to  be  properly  apperceived,  and  then  says  :  '*  Upon  the 
fact  that  certain  easily  distinguishable  amounts  of  time 
are  required  for  this  reception  and  apprehension  of 
individual  notions,  and  the  interaction  between  indi- 
vidual and  general  conceptions,  is  based  the  law  of  suc- 
cessive clearness. 

"This  law  was  first  announced  by  Eatich  [Eatke], 
and  was  afterwards  developed  and  applied  by  Herbart 
and  Ziller.  According  to  this  idea,  the  matter  of  in- 
struction must  not  be  presented  in  the  mass,  but  in 
small,  logically  connected  sections,  to  each  of  which,  in 
succession,  the  pupil  should  give  his  undivided  attention. 
In  this  way,  one  by  one,  individual  notions  are  clearly 
perceived After  the  mind  has  given  its  con- 
centrated attention  to  each  of  the  successive  sections  of 
the  lesson  in  turn,  these  subdivisions  must  be  brought 
into  close  relation  and  connection,  i.e., .  •  .  into  a  unity 
in  consciousness." 

Now  this  method  of  procedure  clearly  involves  the 
existence  of  a  series.  As  Dr.  De  Garmo  goes  on  to 
say  :  "  It  is  a  prime  duty  of  the  teacher  to  see  that  the 
elements  of  what  is  presented  are  arranged  in  natural 
series,  so  that  intimate  and  lasting  associations  can  be 
formed."  This  applies  not  only  to  the  details  within  the 
same  unit,  but  also  to  items  of  knowledge  which  do  not 
appear  to  have  any  obvious  organic  connection,  e.g,, 
arithmetical  tables^  declensions,  conjugations,  formation 


430  EDUCATION 

of  genders,  geographical  names,  historical  dates,  and  the 
like.  Herein  lies  the  value  of  any  reasonable  system 
of  mnemonics. 

Another  very  important  feature  in  the  principle  of 
gradation  is  that  of  regularity.  The  cumulation  of 
effect,  which  comes  from  a  constant  and  uninterrupted 
addition  of  suitable  amounts,  is  of  the  very  greatest 
value.  Both  substance  and  power  are  thus  secured. 
Dr.  Abbott  insists  that :  "  Second-rate  regular  teaching 
is  better  for  the  very  young  than  first-rate  teaching,  if 
the  latter  be  very  irregular."  This  applies  as  much  to 
the  details  of  a  sound  system  as  to  the  system  itself. 
By  regularity,  progress  is  made  more  easy,  consistent, 
and  permanent. 

A  gradual  increase  in  the  rapidity  with  which  pro- 
cesses are  carried  through  should  also  be  provided  for. 
Facility  in  action  is  as  much  a  matter  of  development 
as  power  in  action.  Only  when  the  details  of  an  action, 
or  a  series  of  actions,  are  thoroughly  familiar,  and  when 
the  pupil  can  accurately  perform  them — taking  as  much 
time  as  he  finds  necessary  for  this — should  there  be  any 
endeavour  to  cultivate  speed  for  its  own  sake.  When, 
however,  this  stage  has  been  reached  then  rapidity  should 
be  striven  for. 

Then  there  is  what  we  may  call  the  element  of  grasp. 
A  beginner  is  only  able  to  take  account  of  small  and 
single  things.  Later  on  he  can  manage  larger  things, 
and  a  few  at  a  time.  This  applies  both  to  mental  and 
'  physical  matters.  The  educator  must,  therefore,  care- 
fully graduate  the  size  and  number  of  the  items  dealt 
with.    Here,  as  elsewhere,  we  must  expect  that,  as  a 


GENERAL   PRINCIPLES  431 

rule,  success  will  come  through  failure,  and  accuracy 
through  inaccuracy. 

Both  in  perceptual  and  conceptual  development  we 
must  observe  each  and  all  of  these  conditions  of  grada- 
tions. More  particularly,  the  practical  educator  should 
take  note  that  he  will  have  to  begin  over  again,  so  to 
speak,  when  he  comes  to  deal  with  explicit  conceptual 
development,  after  the  perceptual  has  been  brought  to 
a  comparatively  high  level.  Dr.  Bain  remarks  :  "  All 
the  difficulties  of  the  higher  knowledge  have  reference 
to  the  generalising  process — the  seeing  of  one  in  many. 
The  arts  of  the  teacher  and  the  expositor  are  supremely 
requisite  in  sweetening  the  toil  of  this  operation." 

Always,  and  in  everything,  the  principle  of  inter- 
relation and  inter-dependence  must  be  combined  with 
that  of  gradation.  Step  by  step  we  must  pass  out  of 
the  old  into  the  new,  from  the  near  to  the  remote. 
There  ought  not  to  be  any  attempts  at  making  jumps 
in  education.  However  briefly  and  lightly  we  may  be 
able  to  deal  with  certain  elements  in  a  given  case,  we 
must  always  assure  ourselves  that  the  power  is  there, 
and  that  it  is  able  to  fully  discharge  its  proper  duties. 

Very  careful  attention  needs  to  be  given  to  the  actual 
physical  powers  and  capacities,  and  their  progressive 
development  The  vigour,  acuteness,  and  capacity  of 
the  sense  organs,  and  of  the  whole  muscular  system, 
have  an  essential  bearing  upon  the  ordering  of  the 
educating  influences.  The  great  differences  which 
have  to  be  made  because  of  such  considerations  are  best 
shown  in  the  case  of  exceptionally  bright  or  dull 
children.     In  Germany  they  have  special  schools  for 


432  EDUCATION 

such.  In  these  schools  the  dull  child  is  allowed  to 
take  an  hour  for  what  would  take  an  ordinary  child 
about  ten  minutes ;  whilst  the  very  susceptible  pupil  is 
promptly  sent  off  to  play — or  to  bed— directly  it  begins 
to  get  over-excited  by  its  work. 

From  an  easy  task  to  one  somewhat  less  easy,  the 
learner  should  be  led  on,  step  by  step,  to  more  and 
more  dijBBcult  work.  Each  step,  in  the  earlier  stages, 
must  be  well  within  his  grasp  and  power ;  but  it  should 
increase  in  difficulty,  both  as  to  quality  and  quantity, 
according  to  his  growing  capacities  and  knowledge.  It 
is  often  the  beginnings  of  things  which  are  most 
difficult. 

This  does  not  mean  that  the  pupil  is  never  to  have 
any  task  in  which  there  is  a  serious  difficulty  for  him 
to  overcome.  Occasionally  such  tasks  should  be  de- 
signedly given,  so  that  he  may  realise  the  element  of 
difficulty,  and  learn  to  appreciate  the  real  value  of  his 
previous  training,  and  the  power  of  the  method  of 
gradual  attack  and  progressive  mastery.  The  judicious 
use  of  problems  just  in  advance  of  the  pupil's  power 
and  knowledge  is  one  of  the  most  stimulating  influ- 
ences. But  such  ought  always  to  be,  more  or  less 
directly,  based  upon  work  actually  done,  and  powers 
known  to  be  possessed.  Easy  new  adaptations,  and 
applications  of  old  knowledge,  are  all  that  ought  to  be 
expected  from  beginners. 

Dr.  Abbott  says:  "Sometimes  we  must  set  easy 
tasks  so  as  to  generate  a  habit  of  reasonable  self- 
reliance,  and  prevent  the  pupil  from  becoming  dis- 
pirited by  continual  failures.    Sometimes  we  must  set 


GENERAL   PRINCIPLES  433 

more  diflBlcult  tasks,  such  as  involve  some  wholesome 
strain  of  the  powers,  so  as  to  lead  the  child  up  to  a 
higher  standard  of  exertion,  and  prevent  him  from 
becoming  too  easily  contented  with  himself." 

As  with  other  principles,  so  with  this,  the  fuller 
reading  of  it  must  be  borne  in  mind.  From  the  easy 
to  the  easy :  from  the  easy  to  the  diflScult :  from  the 
difl&cult  to  the  diflBcult :  and  from  the  difficult  to  the 
easy,  make  up  the  fuller  reading.  The  secret  of  success 
for  the  practical  educator  is  the  rule :  Gradation ;  again 
gradation ;  and  always  gradation. 

Some  General  Eemarks. — A  few  quotations  from 
writers  on  the  practice  of  education  will  be  sufficient  to 
show  that  the  principles  discussed  in  this  chapter  have 
forced  themselves  upon  practical  workers.  Professor 
Huxley  insists  on  the  principle  of  information  in  the 
following  passage :  "  The  business  of  education  is,  in  the 
first  place,  to  provide  the  young  with  the  means  and 
the  habit  of  observation ;  and,  secondly,  to  supply  the 
subject-matter  of  knowledge,  either  in  the  shape  of 
science  or  of  art,  or  of  both  combined." 

Dr.  Fitch  puts  the  value  of  this  principle  very  for- 
cibly in  these  words :  "  We  must  not,  in  our  zeal  for 
those  parts  of  instruction  which  are  specially  educative, 
lose  sight  of  the  value  of  even  empirical  instruction 
about  these  things.  To  impart  facts  is  not  a  teacher's 
highest   business,  but  it  is  a  substantial   part  of  his 

business The  best  reasons  for  seeking  to  give 

your  pupils  a  good  basis  of  facts  are  that  the  possession 
of  them  is  very  useful ;  that  all  future  scientific  gene- 
ralisation pre-supposes  them ;  that  they  furnish  pabulum 

2e 


434  EDUCATION 

for  the  thought  and  the  imagination  ;  and  generally  that 
life  is  rich  and  interesting  in  proportion  to  the  number 
of  things  we  know  and  care  about." 

The  principle  of  symbolism  is  recognised  in  the 
following  opinion  of  the  late  Professor  Freeman,  the 
historian:  "The  difiTerence  between  good  and  bad 
teaching  mainly  consists  in  this,  whether  the  words 
used  are  really  clothed  with  a  meaning  or  not."  Mr. 
Thring  points  out  the  great  value  of  words  as  an  aid  to 
thought,  and  says :  "  The  schoolboy  who  will  not  study 
words  had  better  follow  the  plough,  for  he  will  never 

be  a  thinker  of  thoughts New  words  mean  new 

powers  of  thought."  This  same  truth  is  thus  expressed 
by  Dr.  De  iSarmo :  "  Language  reflects  thought  as  the 
mirror  reflects  the  image  of  him  who  stands  before  it. 
For  this  reason  the  study  of  language  is  often  the  most 
direct  road  to  an  understanding  of  the  various  elements 
of  thought." 

David  Stow  bases  his  "Training  System"  almost 
wholly  on  what  he  calls  "picturing  out  in  words," 
which,  he  argues,  "enables  the  pupils  to  draw  the 
lesson  or  deduction  [i.e.,  'the  inference  which  every 
complete  sentence  or  paragraph  is  intended  to  convey '] 
in  their  own  language,  the  master  acting  throughout  the 
whole  process  as  the  trainer  or  conductor,  and  only 
furnishing  facts  which  he  ascertains  that  the  children 
do  not  know,  and,  therefore,  for  the  sake  of  advance- 
ment, must  be  told."  He  adds:  "We  cannot  picture 
out  or  express  objects  with  which  we  are  not  ac- 
quainted." 

He  also  wisely  remarks :  "  Any  word  used  by  a  speaker 


GENERAL   PRINCIPLES  435 

or  teacher,  and  not  clearly  apprehended  by  his  pupils, 
is  without  meaning ;  by  the  person  speaking  it  may  be 
perfectly  understood,  but  to  those  addressed,  he  in  reality 

speaks  in  a  foreign  tongue A  reverend  divine, 

on  being  requested  to  examine  the  Sabbath-school 
children  of  a  friend,  commenced  by  putting  the  follow- 
ing question  :  *  Children,  in  the  work  of  regeneration, 
can  you  tell  me  whether  the  spirit  operates  causally  or 
instrumentally  ? '  If  these  children  could  have  an- 
swered this  question,  they  might  certainly  have  been 
transplanted,  we  think,  to  the  Divinity  Hall  of  the 
University." 

Dr.  De  Garmo  sets  forth  the  principle  of  gradation 
from  the  practical  side,  thus :  "  The  matter  of  instruc- 
tion must,  therefore,  be  presented  in  natural  sub- 
divisions, thus  giving  resting-places  which  allow  the 
mind  to  recover  from  its  absorption,  and  to  fortify  itself 
against  distraction  by  bringing  its  knowledge  into 
wholes.  How  minute  the  subdivisions  of  the  lessons 
should  be,  must  be  determined  by  the  age  and  mental 

strength  of  the  pupils If  the  steps  of  reasoning 

in  a  problem  are  not  separated  and  mastered  one  by 
one,  there  is  instant  danger  of  confusion,  though  the 
amount  which  a  pupil  can  master  at  one  impulse  grows 
with  advancing  mental  ability.  The  same  law  holds, 
also,  in  all  other  branches." 

A  good  example  of  the  practical  use  of  this  principle 
is  given  by  Dr.  Abbott.  He  advises  teachers  to  adopt 
the  following  method  in  teaching  a  book  of  Caesar. 
"  Select  from  the  book  to  be  studied,  fifteen  or  twenty  of 
the  most  difficult  of  the  long  sentences,  exhibiting  most 


436  EDUCATION 

prominently  the  ordinary  complications  that  perplex 
boys — abundant  conjunctions,  the  idioms  of  oratio 
obliqua,  sentences  subordinate  to  others  which  are  them- 
selves in  turn  subordinate,  ambiguous  pronouns,  and 
the  like.  Do  not  show  these  sentences  to  your  pupils 
as  yet;  but  take  them  to  pieces  and  show  them  the 
pieces  separately.  Then,  by  degrees,  put  the  pieces  to- 
gether, and  make  the  boys  help  you  in  building  up  the 
complete  sentence." 

From  the  two  preceding  quotations  it  will  be  seen 
how  the  principles  of  gradation  and  analysis  and  syn- 
thesis are  practically  combined.  Such  combinations 
are  found  in  many  of  the  illustrations. 

The  application  of  the  various  maxims,  and  several  of 
the  general  principles,  to  the  higher  branches  of  study 
is  well  shown  in  Dr.  E.  Wormell's  book  "  Plotting  or 
Graphic  Mathematics."  In  the  introduction,  the  author 
says:  "Although  the  educational  methods  which  are 
associated  with  the  name  of  Proebel  have  been  brought 
very  near  to  perfection  in  the  kindergarten,  they  are  to 
a  great  extent  suspended  when  the  pupil  passes  from 
the  infant  school.  They  reappear,  however,  in  the 
schools  and  colleges  for  technical  and  experimental 
science.  The  graphical  and  synthetical  methods  of  com- 
paring results  and  tracing  laws,  which  have  been  ex- 
tensively developed  in  these  colleges,  are  but  an 
advanced  application  of  Froebellian  methods 

**  The  charm  of  the  method,  as  in  the  kindergarten, 
is  inherent  in  its  nature.  It  gives  something  to  be  done 
by  the  hand  and  followed  by  the  eye — keeping  pace 
with  the  course  of  thought  and  reasoning.     The  proof 


GENERAL   PRINCIPLES  437 

of  a  rule  or  law  often  lies  entirely  in  the  process  by 
which  the  rule  or  law  is  graphically  illustrated,  and  the 
consequence  is  that  the  pupil,  while  following  the 
course,  is  constantly  on  a  voyage  of  discovery,  and  has 
all  the  pleasure  and  stimulus  of  an  original  in- 
vestigator." 

Eousseau  says  :  *'  Whatever  the  study  may  be,  with- 
out the  idea  of  the  things  represented  the  signs  repre- 
senting them  go  for  nothing"  (Quick).  Comenius 
writes :  *'  Let  words  always  be  conjoined  with  things. 
Thereby  we  shall  learn  about  realities"  (Laurie). 
Montaigne  argues  that:  "For  learning  to  judge  well 
and  speak  well,  whatever  presents  itself  to  our  eyes 
serves  as  a  suflScient  book  ^'  (Compayr^). 

A  good  instance  of  the  application  of  the  principle  of 
information  is  given  by  Comenius,  when  he  urges  that : 
**The  child  may  receive  elementary  notions  even  of 
politics,  in  observing  that  certain  persons  assemble  at 
the  city  hall,  and  that  they  are  called  councillors ;  and 
that  among  these  persons  there  is  one  called  mayor, 
&c."  (Compayr^). 

The  pi'inciple  of  gradation  has  been  put  very  clearly, 
in  its  philosophic  form,  by  Descartes  (1596-1650),  as 
follows :  "  The  first  precept  is  never  to  receive  any- 
thing for  true  that  I  do  not  know,  upon  evidence,  to  be 
such  ....  and  to  comprise  no  more  within  my  judg- 
ments than  what  is  presented  so  clearly  and  distinctly 
to  my  mind  that  I  have  no  occasion  to  call  it  in  ques- 
tion "  (Compayre). 


CHAPTEE  X 

DETERMINANTS   OF  MENTAL   GROWTH  AND 
DEVELOPMENT 

General  Determinants.  —  That  which  is  alive  is  always  in 
a  state  of  greater  or  lesser  activity,  and  this  activity  ne- 
cessarily involves  more  or  less  waste.  It  is  absolutely 
necessary  for  such  waste  to  be  repaired  if  life  is  to  con- 
tinue. This  means  that  nourishment  must  be  supplied 
to,  and  assimilated  by,  all  living  organisms.  It  must 
follow  from  this  that  according  to  the  kind  of  nourish- 
ment and  the  results  of  the  assimilation  of  it  will  be  the 
general  condition  of  the  organism. 

Now  the  assimilation  of  nourishment  will  be  accord- 
ing to  the  nature  of  that  which  assimilates  and  that 
which  is  assimilated.  We  must,  therefore,  take  into 
consideration,  in  connection  with  this  matter,  the  proper 
nature  of  mind  and  of  that  which  nourishes  it.  Both 
of  these  have  been  somewhat  fully  dealt  with  in  the 
preceding  chapters,  and  it  only  remains  to  notice  some 
special  elements  of  relation  between  them. 

The  general  relation  is  one  of  action  and  re-action. 


MENTAL  GROWTH  AND  DEVELOPMENT         439 

Organism  and  nourishment  inter-act  upon  each  other. 
Neither  is  an  absolute  principal  at  any  moment,  and, 
therefore,  neither  is  an  absolute  subordinate.  There  are 
always  elements  of  initiative  and  of  passive  reaction  in 
each.  But,  at  the  same  time,  there  is  a  general  pre- 
dominance of  the  human  organism,  both  as  to  initiative 
and  control,  in  the  processes  involved.  This  is  of 
consequence  because  it  implies,  at  least  in  a  practical 
sense,  that  the  element  of  responsibility  rests  largely 
upon  the  human  being  with  regard  to  the  particular 
character  of  actual  development. 

But  it  is  not  implied  that  this  practical  responsibility 
rests  wholly,  or  even  chiefly,  upon  the  individual. 
Up  to  a  certain  point  it  is  laid  upon  those  who  have 
charge  of  him,  such  as  parents,  guardians,  and  teachers. 
Sooner  or  later,  however,  the  individual  must  himself 
be  responsible,  although  this  responsibility  must  always 
be  shared  in,  to  some  extent,  by  the  society  in  which 
he  lives,  in  so  far  as  it  in  any  way  limits  or  controls  his 
life. 

The  original  nature  of  the  individual  is,  therefore,  bf 
essential  importance  in  determining  the  general  and 
particular  nature  of  his  development.  The  element  of 
mere  growth  is  chiefly  dependent  upon  the  kind  and 
amount  of  nourishment,  and  the  possession  of  the 
ordinary  powers  of  assimilation.  Hence  these  are  the 
two  fundamental  determinants. 

Since  the  mental  powers  are  always  engaged  in 
receiving,  interpreting,  relating,  recording,  and  organis- 
ing into  higher  relations,  the  significations  of  experience, 
we  may  regard  experiences,  in  the  very  widest  sense,  as 


440  EDUCATION 

constituting  the  whole  and  sole  nourishment  for  mind 
We  shall,  therefore,  deal  with  the  subject-matter  of  this 
chapter  under  two  heads :  the  original  character  of  the 
human  being,  and  experiences. 

In  both  of  these  there  are  constant,  irregular,  and 
accidental  elements.  Those  elements  are  constant 
which  exert  a  regular  power  or  influence  for  con- 
siderable periods,  or  during  the  whole  of  life.  In  the 
original  character  of  an  individual  they  will  be  such 
qualities  as  impulsiveness,  optimism,  pessimism,  re- 
serve, timidity,  sulkiness,  and  so  on.  Amongst  influ- 
ences there  will  be :  food,  exercise,  light  and  darkness, 
social  life,  and  others. 

Irregular  elements  will  be  those  which  occur  more 
or  less  frequently,  but  at  uncertain  and  often  lengthy 
intervals.  In  the  individuality  of  a  person  there  may 
be  involved  elements  which  cause  occasional  periods  of 
intense  dulness  or  gaiety,  hope  or  despondency,  and  the 
like.  Among  the  experiences  there  are :  occasional  spells 
of  foreign  travel,  indulgence  in  special  pleasures,  sick- 
ness, notable  success,  disheartening  failure,  and  so  on. 

Accidental  elements  are  those  which  seem  never  to 
repeat  themselves,  or,  at  most,  to  do  so  after  excep- 
tionally long  intervals.  Such  are :  slips  into  violent 
impatience  of  those  who  have  exceptional  patience  as  a 
rule,  great  excitement  at  some  critical  moment  in  a 
characteristically  phlegmatic  person,  and  the  like,  with 
regard  to  individuality ;  and,  a  very  serious  accident,  a 
complete  loss  of  fortune,  the  death  of  a  particularly  dear 
friend,  and  the  like,  amongst  experiences. 

All  the  above  exert  special  influences,  either  favour- 


MENTAL  GROWTH  AND  DEVELOPMENT         441 

able  or  adverse,  upon  the  development  of  an  individual. 
The  constant  and  irregular  have  varying  but  consider- 
able eflfect  because  of  their  repetition.  The  accidental 
frequently  bring  about  very  definite  results,  on  account 
of  their  impressiveness  and  rareness. 

Every  single  power  and  experience  has,  of  course,  its 
share,  however  small,  in  determining  the  general  line 
of  development.  But  very  many  are  so  slight  in  them- 
selves and  so  sub-conscious  in  their  effects  that  we  can 
practically  aflford  to  neglect  them.  As  a  matter  of  fact, 
however,  they  are  important  in  that  they  form  a  kind 
of  background  which  throws  into  more  striking  relief 
the  definitely  significant  elements. 

Another  point  which  demands  attention  is  the  fact 
that  only  at  certain  periods  of  life  is  the  individual 
directly  determined  to  any  considerable  extent  by 
general  influences.  After  a  certain  time  he  is  only 
indirectly  determined  by  these,  the  direct  and  most 
powerful  influence  being  that  of  the  more  or  less 
developed  self.  It  is  during  infancy  that  most  is 
directly  done  by  external  influences.  These  gradually 
have  less  and  less  direct  effect,  and  more  and  more 
indirect  effect,  through  the  reason. 

Determinants  may  be  classified  also  as  formative  and 
directive.  Those  determinants  are  formative  which 
supply  nourishment  to  the  self.  They  may  be  either 
external  or  internal.  All  kinds  of  physical  materials, 
sensations,  percepts,  and  general  experiences,  which  go 
to  supply  the  elements  of  the  bodily,  mental,  and 
moral  powers,  make  up  the  external  group.  The 
internal  will  include  what  may  be  spoken  of  as  all  the 


442  EDUCATION 

purely  self-given  elements.  Just  as  the  body,  though 
dependent  upon  the  nourishment  which  it  receives  from 
outside  itself,  may  be  rightly  said  to  give  to  such 
material  much  of  its  final  nutritive  value,  so  the  mind 
puts  into  its  nourishment  (in  new  forms)  much  of  the 
goodness  of  it. 

Directive  determinants  include  those  elements  of 
influence  which  result  from  the  methods,  whether 
implicit  or  explicit,  involved  in  the  eflTorts  to  secure 
development.  If,  for  example,  logical  and  scientific 
methods  are  uniformly  involved  in  the  organising  of 
the  influences  brought  to  bear  upon  an  individual,  they 
will,  in  course  of  time,  produce  similar  methods  in  the 
activities  of  the  developing  organism.  These  will  in 
time  become  habits,  and  in  such  form  they  will  have  a 
permanent  and  powerful  influence  in  determining  the 
nature  of  the  development.  The  want  of  good  methods 
will  certainly  be  more  or  less  unfavourable  to  the  best 
form  of  development. 

Good  directive  determinants  add  skill,  and,  therefore, 
power  to  the  activities  of  the  self.  They  make  easier 
and  more  effective  the  necessary  self-efforts  of  the 
individual.  Whilst  not  in  themselves  directly  adding 
to  the  substance,  so  to  speak,  of  mind,  they  indirectly 
assist  in  its  growth,  by  perfecting  the  eJBEectiveness  of 
the  activities  concerned  in  it.  There  should,  therefore, 
be  constant  effort  to  secure  them. 

From  another  point  of  view  all  determinants  may  be 
divided  into  involuntary  and  voluntary.  The  involun- 
tary are  those  which  are  due  to  what  we  may  call  the 
inevitable  minimum  of  organic  activity  necessary  to  the 


MENTAL   GROWTH   AND   DEVELOPMENT      443 

being  and  existence  of  an  organism,  as  such.  This  is 
due  to  an  inexplicable  element — an  unknown  quantity 
— which  we  term  vital  force.  So  far,  therefore,  as  the 
inevitable  activities  of  organisms  other  than  the  self 
must  inevitably  affect  the  self,  in  so  far  we  look  upon 
such  determination  as  involuntary.  There  are  the  com- 
pelling influences  of  what  we  call  the  force  of  circum- 
stances, over  which,  we  say,  we  have  no  control. 

But  when  the  equally  inexplicable  individuality  of 
the  human  being  has  taken  definite  form,  and  begins 
to  assert  itself,  then  we  have  voluntary  determinants. 
By  voluntary  determinants  then  we  mean  the  self- 
determination  of  the  self.  The  individual  develops  a 
power  of  initiation,  and  becomes  aggressive,  in  respect 
to  his  own  development.  A  man,  as  we  say,  seeks  his 
own  good  in  his  own  way.  More  will  be  said  of  this  a 
few  pages  on. 

In  organising  the  conditions  for  making  certain 
determinants  most  effective  in  their  form  and  function 
care  must  be  taken  that  there  is  plenty  of  time  for  the 
complete  reception,  assimilation,  and  organisation  of  the 
elements  which  are  to  constitute  the  determinant. 
For  example,  if  it  is  desired  that  truthfulness  should 
control  the  speech  and  thought  of  an  individual,  it 
must  not  be  expected  that  one  or  two  exhortations  or 
corrections  will  be  sufficient  to  establish  such  a  deter- 
minant. 

There  must  be  the  careful  and  repeated  demonstra- 
tion of  what  truthfulness  and  untruthfulness  involve  in 
themselves  and  their  effects,  from  the  practical  point  of 
view  at  first.     Then  there  must  follow  proper  opportu- 


444  EDUCATION 

nities  for  practising  truthfulness  under  reasonable  tests. 
This  should  continue  until  truthfulness  is  a  habit. 
Then  there  may  be  an  exposition  of  the  higher  nature 
of  the  virtue  and  its  place  and  function  in  an  ethical 
system.  Thus  it  may  be  developed  to  its  highest 
powers  as  a  determinant. 

Original  Character  of  the  Human  Being — ^In  this  there 
are  obviously  two  elements :  the  racial  and  the  indivi- 
dual. Both  of  these  require  to  be  intelligently  under- 
stood and  definitely  provided  for  in  all  the  essential 
educational  processes.  To  b3  too  much  taken  up  with 
either  the  one  element  or  the  other,  to  the  practical 
neglect  or  omission  of  either,  must  involve  more  or  less 
mischievous  results. 

Were  it  not  the  case  that  every  human  being 
possesses  substantial  and  permanent  general  resem- 
blances, we  could  not  even  know  the  human  being  as  a 
type,  genus,  or  class.  On  the  other  hand,  if  there  were 
not  also  substantial  and  permanent  individual  differences 
we  could  not  know  one  species,  or  smaller  class,  of  men 
from  others,  or  one  individual  from  another  in  the  same 
species.  The  fact  that  we  do  know  them  in  the  senses 
suggested  is  suflBcient  evidence  that  there  exist  such 
invariable  common  qualities,  and  such  varying  indivi- 
dual ones. 

White  men,  black  men,  yellow  men,  and  red  men, 
are  all  animals,  however  much  or  little  this  element 
may  be  restrained  and  refined  in  them,  and  they  are  all 
rational,  no  matter  to  what  extent,  large  or  small,  this 
quality  has  been  developed.  Civilisation  is  a  matter  of 
degree  and  not  of  fundamental  difference.     It  has  been 


MENTAL  GROWTH  AND  DEVELOPMENT      445 

forcibly  said  that  one  has  but  to  scratch  a  civilised 
person  to  find  the  savage  in  him. 

Bacial  Elements. — Man  from  the  racial  point  of  view 
is  a  rational  animal.  His  rationality  and  animality  are, 
80  far  as  we  know,  absolutely  inseparable,  but  the 
nature  of  each  is  perfectly  distinct  and  characteristic. 
This  difierence  is  summed  up  in  the  distinction  between 
mind  and  matter — a  philosophical  and  profound  ques- 
tion into  which  we  have  no  need  to  go  since  we  are  only 
concerned  with  the  empirical  aspects  of  scientific 
knowledge. 

Each  of  these  factors — ^mind  and  body — have  their 
own  special  and  characteristic  place  and  functions  in  the 
general  problem.  Each  brings  a  certain  total  of 
practically  invariable  powers  and  processes  to  take  part 
in  the  general  working  of  the  human  being  as  an  organ- 
ism. The  mind,  through  its  powers  of  intellectual 
assimilation  and  discrimination,  and  their  various  forms, 
not  only  interprets  the  world  for  the  individual  as  a 
whole,  but,  in  so  doing,  also  enables  the  body  to  secure 
the  most  favourable  conditions  for  itself.  The  body  by 
its  powers  of  physical  assimilation  of  different  kinds, 
brings  the  mind  into  communication  with  the  outer 
world,  and  so  makes  it  possible  for  the  mind  to  obtain 
the  best  conditions  for  its  growth  and  development.  It 
does  this  chiefly  through  its  powers  of  receiving  all 
kinds  of  sense-impressions,  and  also  through  its  power 
of  locomotion. 

At  any  one  period  in  the  history  of  a  race  it  may 
be  said  to  have  certain  general  characteristics  which 
are  the  results  of  its  previous  history.     This  will  not 


446  EDUCATION 

involve  very  much  with  regard  to  the  race  as  a  whole, 
because  of  the  very  numerous  and  important  variations 
in  the  rate  of  civilisation  of  the  different  branches  of  the 
human  family.  For  example,  so  far  as  is  known,  every 
branch  of  the  race  has  employed,  to  a  greater  or  lesser 
extent,  fire  as  a  means  of  cooking  food.  Man  might, 
therefore,  be  clearly  distinguished  from  other  animals 
by  being  termed  a  food-cooking  animal. 

With  respect  to  certain  sections  of  mankind,  especially 
the  more  civilised  peoples,  there  are  many  common 
qualities  possessed  by  the  individuals  composing  them. 
For  example,  we  may  mention :  forms  of  government, 
systems  of  industry  and  trade,  social  forms  and  cere- 
monies and  the  like.  All  such  have  had  very  consider- 
able effects  in  moulding  individuals  to  a  common  type, 
within  certain  limits. 

A  given  group  of  human  beings  may,  therefore,  be 
regarded  as  having  common  resemblances  very  much  in 
excess  of  what  the  whole  race  has.  So  that  whilst  a 
system  of  developing  conditions  could  be  devised  which 
would  be  suitable  for  all  mankind  up  to  a  certain  point, 
any  attempt  to  go  further  with  such  a  scheme  would 
break  down  because  of  the  common  resemblances 
ceasing  there. 

But  a  scheme  could  be  formed  which  would  go  very 
much  further  with  all  the  nations  of  Western  Europe, 
but  only  up  to  the  point  where  common  characteristics 
prevailed.  Again  a  common  plan  would  hold  up  to  a 
still  higher  point  for  each  separate  nation ;  and  even 
to  a  more  advanced  one  for  distinct  groups  within  a 
nation — as  to  special  subjects  and  purposes.    Wherever 


MENTAL  GROWTH   AND    DEVELOPMENT      447 

similarities  of  characteristics  prevail  there,  obviously, 
common  conditions  for  development  are  favourable, 
with  regard  to  such  like  qualities  and  up  to,  at  least, 
an  average  development  of  them. 

In  all  ordinary  matters,  all  ordinary  human  beings 
can  attain  to  an  average  standard  of  power  and  skill. 
The  great  majority  of  people  are  always  approximating 
to  such  a  level.  There  are  comparatively  few  who 
either  very  much  exceed,  or  fall  short  of,  this.  Not 
only  are  we  all  very  human,  but  we  are  most  of  us  very 
averagely  human.  Fortunately  this  average  is  not  a 
fixed  quantity,  as  the  progress  of  a  race  from  savagery 
to  civilisation  shows. 

To  put  the  matter  briefly :  every  class  of  objects  has 
its  inevitable  and  permanent  minimum  of  characteristics 
common  to  its  members  and  marking  them  off  from 
every  other  class.  It  is  only  thus  that  we  can  know 
classes,  and  it  is  as  futile  to  ignore  this  as  it  would  be 
to  neglect  the  individual  differences.  The  essential 
resemblances  of  violins  to  one  another  are  as  constant 
and  as  characteristic  as  their  more  or  less  superficial 
differences  of  material,  form,  and  tone,  from  those  of 
cornets,  are  unmistakable. 

In  living  organisms  there  has  been  a  perpetual  trans- 
mission from  individual  to  individual  of  these  common 
resemblances  of  nature  and  form,  through  all  the  ages. 
Not  that  either  has  remained  absolutely  constant,  but  the 
essential  elements  have  never  fundamentally  changed. 
Heredity  has  not  only  thus  continued  the  type,  but  has 
also  continued  those  important  differences  which  mark 
off  the  various  races  and  distinct  groups  of  men. 


448  EDUCATION 

All  that  has  been  said  with  regard  to  the  human 
being  as  a  whole  is  peculiarly  true  of  the  mental 
activities  of  man.  As  Mr.  Herbert  Spencer  remarks : 
"  Some  of  the  best  illustrations  of  functional  heredity 
are  furnished  by  the  mental  characteristics  of  the 
human  race." 

One  interesting  and  important  fact  connected  with 
heredity  deserves  special  notice.  Though  heredity,  as 
a  rule,  tends  to  hand  on  the  general  elements  of  pro- 
gress, yet  it  sometimes,  so  to  put  it,  turns  backward  the 
stream  of  resemblance,  and  an  individual  comes  into 
existence  who  is  very  closely  alike  to  those  of  the 
same  class  in  past  times.  This  is  known  as  a  reversion 
to  ancestral  type. 

Individual  Elements — We  have  previously  remarked 
that  there  are,  practically,  infinite  differences  as  well  as 
infinite  similarities  amongst  what  we  term  classes  of 
things,  and  throughout  the  universe.  For  us  the 
similarities  are  of  primary  importance  for  they  mean 
coherence,  significance,  system  and  knowledge;  whilst 
the  infinite  differences  could,  by  themselves,  only  cause 
chaos  in  the  mental  world.  Of  course  absolutely  infinite 
similarity  could  mean  nothing  more  than  "a  some- 
thing" to  us,  for  the  element  of  relativity  would  be 
absent.  Similarity  and  diJBEerence  are  absolutely  neces- 
sary to  each  other  so  far  as  the  constitution  of  our 
knowledge  of  the  world  is  concerned. 

It  is  doubtless  true  to  say,  even  from  the  practical 
point  of  view,  that  no  two  things  have  ever  been,  or 
are  likely  to  be,  found  absolutely  and  entirely  similar. 
It  might  be  thought  that  two  straight  lines  of  equal 


MENTAL   GBOWTH   AND   DEVELOPMENT      449 

length  and  thickness  would  satisfy  the  conditions. 
But  a  microscope  would  show  that  the  inevitable  irregu- 
larity of  the  sides  of  such  lines  would  not  exactly  coin- 
cide. If  this  be  true  of  form  how  much  more  likely  is 
it  to  be  so  of  content. 

We  may  take  it,  therefore,  that  every  distinct  and 
separate  n?  ember  of  a  class  is,  from  the  very  beginning 
of  its  existence,  more  or  less  different  from  every  other 
member.  It  starts,  so  to  say,  with  an  element  of  bias, 
which  will  cause  it  to  deviate,  to  a  greater  or  lesser  extent, 
from  the  common  course,  whilst  generally  conforming 
therewith.  A  totality  so  infinitely  complex  as  a  human 
being  is  more  liable  to  such  variations  than  almost  any 
other  whole  in  the  universe.  This  is  the  source  and 
substance  of  individuality  ;  which  may  be  said  to  con- 
sist in  special  forms,  or  combinations,  of  ordinary 
attributes. 

A  good  illustration  of  what  is  here  meant  is  afforded 
by  the  making  of  violins.  Two  violins  may  be  made 
from  a  single  piece  of  wood  which  seems  in  all  respects 
to  be  uniform  throughout.  The  same  person  makes 
both,  and  takes  every  pains  and  means  to  produce 
every  detail  in  both  instruments  as  exactly  similar  to 
each  other  as  he  possibly  can.  And  yet  the  invariable 
result  would  be  that  a  difference  of  tone,  often  a  very 
great  one,  wiU  be  found  between  the  two. 

Such  a  fact  is  really  a  mystery  to  us.  We  can  only 
say  that  it  appears  to  be  inevitable.  Dr.  Hoffding 
says :  "  The  inner  unity,  to  which  all  elements  refer, 
and  by  virtue  of  which  the  individuality  is  a  psychical 
individuality,  remains  for  us  an  eternal  riddle."     But 

2f 


450  EDUCATION 

thongh  in  itself  it  is  unexplainable,  yet  we  can  pobt 
oat  ways  in  which  it  is  emphasised  and  developed. 

Heredity  appears  to  affect  individuality  as  well  as 
type.  If  a  parent  has  well  marked  peculiarities, 
whether  physical  or  mental,  or  both,  there  is  almost 
sure  to  be  a  predisposition  in  an  offspring  to  develop 
similar  peculiarities.  It  was  formerly  thought  that 
such  attributes  were  inevitably  handed  on,  as  positive 
possessions,  to  the  next  generation.  But  this  theory  is 
now  regarded  as  untenable,  and  it  is  held  that  there  is 
nothing  more  than  a  tendency  to  develop  such  qualities. 
If  the  conditions  of  life  are  favourable  to  their  growth 
they  will  definitely  appear;  but  under  other  circum- 
stances they  may  never  take  positive  form. 

The  great  developing  influence  of  individuality  is, 
however,  the  reaction  of  the  general  organism  itself  to 
the  influences  which  affect  it.  Just  as  with  the  two 
violins  referred  to  above,  though  the  same  bow  may  be 
drawn  across  the  strings  by  the  same  hand  in  a  practi- 
cally identical  manner,  yet  the  responding  tones  are 
very  different  in  special  character  though  generally 
alike ;  so  influences  which  are  practically  identical  pro- 
duce reactions  in  the  human  being,  which,  though  on 
the  whole  of  a  like  character  have  elements  of  special 
difference. 

For  example :  a  lecture,  which  to  one  person  is  inter- 
esting and  instructive,  is  to  another  also  inspiring ;  and 
whilst  it  gives  to  both  knowledge,  it  may  arouse  in 
only  one  of  them  an  effort  of  self-endeavour,  because  of 
the  element  of  difterence  in  the  total  complex  of  the 
self.      Herbart    says:    "The    entire    life,   the    whole 


MENTAL  GROWTH  AND   DEVELOPMENT      451 

observation  of  mankind,  proves  that  every  one  makes 
out  of  his  experience  and  intercourse  something  answer- 
ing to  himself~-that  he  here  works  out  the  ideas  and 
feelings  he  has  brought  with  him." 

When  hereditary  tendencies  are  developed  by  favour- 
ing circumstances  they  emphasise  individuality,  and 
cause  experiences  to  have  a  special  effect,  in  addition  to 
the  ordinary  results.  This  becomes  cumulative,  and  in 
course  of  time  it  may  even  become  the  predominant 
featDre  in  the  influence  of  experiences.  This  is  seen  in 
the  case  of  persons  who  are  said  to  be  eccentric.  Their 
individuality  has  become  so  pronounced  that  it  preju- 
dices the  ordinary  effects  of  experiences. 

Thus  the  original  germ  of  individuality,  if  we  may  so 
call  it,  is  in  itself  a  means  of  furthering  its  own  de- 
velopment. But  with  this,  as  with  all  other  elements, 
there  is  an  ordinary  amount  of  development  in  the 
average  person.  As  a  rule  each  person  has  just  enough 
individuality  to  mark  him  off  clearly  and  distinctly 
from  his  fellows.  Only  comparatively  few  have  such 
striking  personalities  as  to  stand  out  like  solitary 
mountains  in  an  otherwise  gently  undulating  area. 
And,  again,  not  very  many  are  so  wanting  in  special 
characteristics  as  to  seem  colourless. 

So  far  as  it  is  valuable  or  expedient,  to  develop  any  or 
all  of  a  person's  peculiarities,  as  constituting  his  indivi- 
duality, it  is  quite  clear  that  there  must  be  special  influ- 
ences brought  to  bear  upon  him,  and  special  conditions 
favourable  to  his  nature  provided.  Systems  for  further- 
ing development  which  suit  another,  therein  fail  to  be 
suitable  for  him,  so  far  as  his  individuality  is  concerned. 


452  EDUCATION 

It  is,  however,  a  first  condition  for  the  best  develop- 
ment of  individuality  that  all  the  ordinary  common 
characteristics  of  the  individual  shall  have  been  de- 
veloped to,  at  least,  an  average  extent.  There  can  be 
no  more  fatal  mistake  than  to  assume  that  any  one 
power  of  mind,  or  body,  can  be  brought  to  its  most 
powerful  and  fullest  state  of  development  by  receiving 
exclusive  attention.  This  is  impossible  from  the  very 
nature  of  mind  itself.  To  impoverish  the  many  powers 
will  finally  result  in  destroying  the  support  of  the  one, 
and  will  always  more  or  less  prejudice  its  soundness 
and  thoroughness. 

Experiences. — Mind  builds  itself  up  from  experiences, 
and  these  are,  of  course,  provided  by  the  surroundings. 
According  as  the  individual  is  more  or  less  limited  to  a 
definite  environment,  and  this  environment  itself  is  of 
a  more  or  less  constant  character,  so  will  the  effects  of 
the  surroundings  upon  the  individual  be  more  marked 
and  definite.  This  is  well  seen  in  the  cases  of  a  typical 
rustic  and  a  typical  cockney,  or  in  those  of  the  book- 
worm and  the  man  of  affairs. 

From  what  has  been  said  about  individuality  it  will  be 
seen  that  the  same  environment  will  have  different,  as 
well  as  similar,  effects  upon  various  individuals.  We 
must,  therefore,  consider  not  only  the  nature  and 
influence  of  the  euvironment  as  a  whole,  but  also  the 
special  classes  of  stimuli  which  are  found  in  it,  and 
their  influences  upon  individuals.  We  will  proceed, 
therefore,  to  discuss  the  subject  under  the  heads  of 
environment  and  stimuli. 

1.  Environment. — The  general  surroundings  of  man 


MENTAL   GROWTH    AND   DEVELOPMENT      453 

may  be  divided  into  the  physical,  social,  and  purely 
rational.  The  physical  will  include  all  those  concretes 
which  we  usually  call  natural  objects,  and  all  those 
activities  which  we  call  physical.  In  the  social  environ- 
ment will  be  all  those  influences  which  arise  out  of 
the  family  life,  companionship,  national  life,  local  and 
central  government,  sports  and  pastimes,  and  the  like, 
in  a  practical  sense.  Purely  rational  environment  will 
embrace  all  those  influences  which  act  through  the 
intelligence  only,  such  as  general  and  scientific  litera- 
ture, periodicals,  systems  of  what  is  called  higher 
education,  and  all  study  of  the  pure  sciences,  philosophy, 
and  metaphysics. 

Physical  environment  acts  most  directly  and  pre- 
dominantly through  climatic  and  other  such  physical 
influences.  Upon  these  depend  to  a  large  extent  the 
more  general  modifications  of  the  physiological  powers 
and  parts.  Thus  the  inhabitant  of  Central  Africa  is 
more  fitted  to  resist  those  effects  of  heat  which  would 
probably  prove  very  disastrous  to  an  Esquimaux;  whilst 
the  Esquimaux  can  endure  extremes  of  cold  which  would 
doubtless  prove  fatal  to  the  Central  African. 

Then  again,  the  body  has  acquired  special  power  in 
assimilating  those  foods  which  are  best  suited  to  the 
climatic  conditions  of  a  locality.  The  dweller  in  the 
Arctic  regions  lives  largely  on  blubber,  and  regards  a 
tallow  candle  as  a  perfect  luxury  in  diet,  whilst  the 
inhabitant  of  tropical  countries  can  be  perfectly  happy 
on  an  almost  exclusively  rice  diet,  with  ripe  fruit  as  a 
relish.  Thus  the  former  is  best  fitted  to  survive  rigorous 
cold,  and  the  latter  intense  heat. 


454  EDUCATION 

All  such  circumstances  have  a  very  direct  and  general 
effect  upon  the  mind.  Their  results  are  general, 
specific,  and  individual.  The  fact  that  men  have  to  meet 
and  provide  against  the  undesirable  effects  of  climate, 
brings  out  the  powers  of  the  mind  in  devising  more  or 
•less  ingenious  and  complex  ways  of  doing  so.  Habita- 
tions, dress,  diet,  and  so  on,  are  adapted  to  meet  the 
necessities  of  the  cases.  So  far  similar  kinds,  but  not 
details,  of  effects  are  produced  universally. 

Specific  effects  are  produced  in  the  special  lines  of 
thought  and  action  which  have  to  ba  taken  in  dealing 
with  the  particular  kinds  of  climatic  and  other 
geographical  conditions.  Because  of  this,  the  modes  of 
thought  of  a  Mexican  would  differ  very  considerably,  as 
to  the  practical  point  of  view,  from  that  of  a  Patagonian. 
The  local  colour,  so  to  speak,  would  be  very  marked. 
The  individual  effects  would  be  due  to  the  fact  that  each 
person  would  respond  to  the  influences  in  a  manner 
more  or  less  different  from  that  of  his  fellows,  according 
to  the  strength  of  his  individuality,  in  the  sense  already 
discussed. 

To  put  the  matter  in  another  way,  all  mankind  will 
be  alike  in  that  they  have  to  adapt  themselves  to  their 
environment.  All  Europeans  will  be  alike  in  so  far  as 
they  have  to  meet  generally  similar  conditions  of 
surroundings,  but  different  from  Asiatics  so  far  as  the 
conditions  are  different.  All  the  individuals  of  a 
European  country  will  be  alike,  inasmuch  as  the  general 
environment  is  common,  and  different  from  those  of  all 
other  countries  as  far  as  these  differ.  Similarly,  each 
person  in  distinct  groups  of  individuals  in  a  country 


MENTAL   GROWTH   AND   DEVELOPMENT      455 

will  agree  with  each  other,  aod  differ  from  those  of 
other  groups.  Individuals  will  vary  from  each  other 
according  to  the  foregoing,  and,  in  so  far  as  they  react 
differently  upon  the  influences  which  affect  them, 
because  of  their  individuality. 

Hygienic  conditions,  as  involved  in  the  physical 
environment,  are  of  the  very  highest  importance.  Good 
hygienic  conditions  represent  the  most  perfect  practical 
forms  of  natural  surroundings.  They  are,  therefore,  of 
very  great  and  direct  physiological  value,  and  of  equally 
considerable  and  indirect  psychological  worth. 

Of  the  actual  way  in  which  the  physical  environment 
acts  upon  the  body,  and  therefore  upon  the  mind,  the 
different  physical  and  mental  sciences  give  us  more  or 
less  complete  information.  It  is  only  as  we  know  these 
that  we  are  able  to  most  effectively  organise  the  action 
of  physical  influences. 

Dr.  Karl  Lange  says :  "  It  is  not  a  matter  of  indiffer- 
ence whether  we  passed  our  youth  in  a  quiet,  retired 
forest-village,  or  in  a  dark,  damp  dwelling  in  the 
turmoil  of  the  metropolis.  It  is  not  the  same  whether 
we  played  before  the  door  of  a  lonely  hut  on  the  heath, 
or  whether  mighty  mountain  giants  looked  in  at  us 

through  the  window  early  and  late Different  in 

many  respects  are  the  thoughts  and  feelings  of  the 
child  from  the  metropolis  and  the  child  from  the 
village  or  country  town." 

The  social  environment  acts  in  a  similar  way  to  the 
physical,  and,  therefore,  we  need  only  point  out  the 
principal  elements  of  it.  It  affects  both  the'  physical 
and  rational  sides  of  man's  nature,  in  a  practical  and 


456  EDUCATION 

direct  manner.  The  necessities  of  social  life  con- 
siderably modify  both  the  physical  and  rational  life. 
Manners  and  customs  very  largely  control  our  modes  of 
action,  dress,  and  thought. 

Though  manners  and  customs  had,  in  most  cases,  an 
original  appropriateness  for  the  actual  conditions  of  life, 
they  often  survive  their  fitness  and  become  obstacles 
and  hindrances  to  development,  if  not  positively  mis- 
chievous and  destructive.  It  is,  therefore,  very  needful 
that  the  individual  should  resist  such  as  cause  too  ^eat 
friction,  or  the  sacrifice  of  other  and  more  valuable  forms 
of  activity. 

So  far,  however,  as  social  environment  practically 
expresses  the  collective  life,  thought,  tastes,  and  general 
development  of  a  community,  its  influence  upon  the 
individual  is  most  advantageous,  in  that  it  is  a  ready 
and  generally  pleasant  means  of  raising  him  to  the 
general  level.  From  this  point  of  view  the  social 
surroundings  haVe  very  considerable  and  valuable  effects 
in  promoting  development.  It  constitutes  the  general 
effect  of  the  social  environment. 

The  specific  results  are  seen  in  those  social  character- 
istics which  distinguish  one  nation  from  another,  and 
different  national  groups  from  each  other.  There  is 
no  difficulty  in  distinguishing  the  typical  Frenchman, 
Italian,  German,  American,  and  Englishman,  from  each 
other,  so  far  as  their  social  qualities  are  concerned. 
Again,  those  who  live  lives  of  leisure,  professional  work, 
business,  or  manual  labour,  are  easily  known  from  each 
other  by  the  effects  which  their  various  social  surround- 
ings have  upon  them. 


MENTAL   GROWTH    AND   DEVELOPMENT      457 

In  the  same  way  those  who  move  constantly  in 
academic,  artistic,  literary,  or  musical  circles,  have  well- 
marked  characteristics  of  thought  and  action.  Children 
of  educated  and  refined  parents  are  easily  distinguished 
from  those  of  the  uneducated  and  unrefined.  All  social 
groups  in  fact,  exert  a  special  influence  upon  their 
members,  and  this  is  shown  in  characteristic  traits. 
These  are  the  specific  effects  of  the  social  environ- 
ment. 

The  elements  of  special  difference  between  such 
groups  is  shown  by  the  ways  in  which  a  legal  matter 
appeals  to  the  lawyer  and  the  man  in  the  street ;  or  the 
attitudes  of  mind  of  the  clergyman,  the  lawyer,  and  the 
layman,  towards  church  affairs.  These  differences 
depend  upon  what  we  have  called  "  the  mental  local 
colour"  which  results  firom  particular  and  constant 
influences  in  an  environment. 

Individual  effects  are  of  a  similar  nature,  and  proceed 
from  causes  similar  to  those  which  result  from  the 
physical  environment 

Theories  of  politics,  government,  law,  crime,  and  the 
sciences  of  ethics  and  economics,  all  throw,  indirectly, 
some  light  upon  the  nature  and  principles  of  social  life 
and  relations ;  and  it  is  to  these  that  we  must  go  for 
guidance  in  attempting  to  organise  social  influences  as 
means  of  furtheriug  development.  Mr.  Herbert  Spencer 
has  treated  all  social  phenomena  as  constituting  a  de- 
partment of  knowledge  in  his  book  on  sociology. 

Of  the  action  of  the  rational  environment  but  little 
remains  to  be  said.  It  includes  all  the  mental  results 
which  arise  from  the   study,  only,  of  works  on  pure 


458  EDUCATION 

science,  and  general  literary  works.  The  general  effect 
is  to  give  what  may  be  called  intellectual  tone.  This 
may  be  illustrated  by  comparing,  what  would  be  likely 
to  be,  the  intellectual  tone  of  those  who  constantly  read 
the  writings  of  Shakespeare,  Addison,  and  the  other  great 
English  writers,  with  that  of  those  who  read  little  else 
than  police  court  news  and  "  penny  dreadful "  novelettes. 
Or,  we  may  compare  the  effects  of  hearing  ordinary 
music-hall  songs  with  that  produced  by  listening  to 
able  renderings  of  Beethoven's  sonatas. 

The  specific  effects  will  be  seen  in  those  who  confine 
themselves  to  a  purely  scientific,  or  a  purely  literary, 
course  of  study:  to  natural,  mental,  or  mathematical 
science:  to  poetry  or  prose:  to  classics  or  modem 
languages:  to  history  or  theology:  and  so  on.  The 
individual  effects  would  be  on  lines  similar  to  those  in 
the  other  cases. 

In  the  highest  sense,  it  is  the  rational  self  which  is 
the  great  determinant  of  self  in  all  its  forms ;  for  the 
ideals  which  the  reason  itself  sets  up  mould  and  govern 
all  the  thoughts  and  actions  to  definite  purposes.  So 
far  as  there  is  a  fixed  and  dominating  ideal,  which  an 
individual  consistently  strives  after,  this  must  obviously 
determine  what  manner  of  man  he  will  be,  at  least  within 
the  possibilities  of  later  life. 

We  may  say,  therefore,  that  mind  makes  its  own 
immediate  rational  environment  in  later  life ;  and  that 
it  has,  therefore,  the  most  definite  and  extensive  influ- 
ence upon  itself.  The  nearest  approach  to  this  is  the 
influence  of  other  minds  upon  an  individual,  as  shown 
by  the  effects  of  close  companionship.     One  of  the  most 


MENTAL   GROWTH   AND   DEVELOPMENT      459 

definite  and  powerful  of  these  influences  should  be  that 
of  the  educator. 

But  such  an  influence  of  the  higher  self  upon  the 
whole  self  assumes  a  permanent  and  powerful  form  of 
the  rational  self.  Such  a  form  is  the  outcome  of  the 
original  powers  of  the  individual  and  of  the  formation 
of  mental  and  physical  habits.  As  we  have  seen,  habits 
represent  the  positive  and  permanent  achievements  in 
development,  and  are  the  corner-stones  of  further  pro- 
gress. Habits,  therefore,  may  be  regarded  as  the  chief 
factors  in  the  self-determination  of  development;  for 
the  chief  element  of  fixedness  and  power  in  the  self  is 
that  supplied  by  habits. 

Self-determination  of  the  self  is  also  the  most  constant 
of  all  determinants  when  once  the  rational  self  has  taken 
definite  form.  It  is,  as  a  rule,  only  interrupted,  or 
thrown  off  its  balance,  by  those  passing  and  infrequent 
intense  states  of  tonic  excitement  or  depression  which 
come  to  most  people  spme  time  or  other  in  their  lives. 

2.  Stimuli. — ^These  are  simply  the  definite  activities 
into  which  the  environment  and  the  self  can  be  analysed. 
So  far  as  we  are  here  practically  concerned  with  them, 
they  must  be  such  as  have  sufficient  intensity  to  com- 
mand definite  attention  from  the  individual  as  a  whole. 
All  that  has  gone  before  has  dealt,  more  or  less  directly, 
with  the  nature  and  effects  of  the  various  forms  of 
stimuli.  Only  one  or  two  points  need,  therefore,  be 
noticed  here. 

Owing  to  the  reflective  powers  of  mind  it  is  able  to 
stimulate  itself,  and  is,  indeed,  its  own  most  potent  stimu- 
lator.   Mental  stimuli  consist  in  the  activities  of  willing 


460  EDUCATION 

due  to  knowledge  and  designed  to  fnrther  it.  The  will 
stimulates  the  mind,  and  causes  concepts,  judgments, 
and  reasonings  to  be  represented,  and  still  further 
analysed  and  synthesised.  Since  such  stimuli  are 
purely  rational  they  have  a  kind  of  concentrated  effect 
upon  mind ;  for  the  purely  mental  has  most  significance 
and  value  for,  and,  on  that  account,  the  most  effect  on, 
mind. 

Next  to  such  direct  infiuence  of  a  mind  upon  itself  is 
the  indirect  influence  of  other  minds  upon  it  through 
spoken,  written,  or  gesture  languaga  The  last  of  these 
is  meant  to  include  actions  generally,  which,  as  we  say, 
sometimes  speak  more  than  words.  Practically  all 
actions  of  others  convey  some  meaning  to  the  individual 
who  attends  to  them. 

According  to  the  powers  and  skill  of  the  individual, 
and  the  appropriateness  and  the  fulness  of  the  stimuli, 
will  be  the  actual  benefit  that  is  obtained  from  the 
latter;  and  this  will  largely  decide  whether  or  not 
certain  stimuli  will  become  real  mental  determinants. 


CHAPTEE  XI 

GENEEAL   PRINCIPLES   OF  EDUCATION  — (con^tnti^rf) 

Some  very  valuable  principles,  both  from  the  theoretical 
and  practical  points  of  view,  follow  from  what  has  been 
said  in  the  last  chapter.  It  is  there  pointed  out,  that 
men  are,  practically,  infinitely  like  to,  and  diflferent 
from,  each  other.  The  element  of  difference  is  at  its 
minimum  with  regard  to  the  most  fundamental  elements 
of  human  nature,  and  at  its  maximum  in  that  which 
makes  up  the  individuality  of  a  person.  The  likeness 
is  at  its  greatest  with  respect  to  those  elements  of  form 
and  function,  which  mark  off  the  great  natural  orders 
from  each  other.  It  gets  less,  though  still  the  pre- 
dominant feature,  in  each  sub-order  and  species,  in 
proportion  as  these  are  more  or  less  narrow. 

Thus  the  great  elemental  attributes  which  distin- 
guish man,  as  man,  from  other  beings  are,  practically, 
absolutely  the  same  throughout  creation.  In  other 
words,  animality  and  rationality  are  in  their  ultimate 
meaning  invariable.  In  this  sense  there  is  no  difference 
between  man  and  man,  whether  they  be  white,  yellow, 
or  black. 

But  these  three  types  of  men  have  each  their  own 


462  EDUCATION 

common  and  invariable  elements  of  likeness  amongst 
their  own  members,  and  diflferenees  from  the  members 
of  other  types.  Thus  the  white  (including  the  dark  or 
swarthy)  or  wavy -haired  type  is  distinguished  by  its 
colour,  oval-shaped  face,  and  the  fact  that  a  section  of 
the  hair  is  elliptical.  The  yellow  or  straight-haired 
type  has  its  own  colour,  and  a  section  of  the  hair  is 
circular.  The  black  or  woolly-haired  type  is  marked 
ofif  by  colour,  hair,  lips,  and  elongated  skulls.  Besides 
these  quite  distinctive  general  likenesses  and  imlike- 
nesses,  there  are  many  more  characteristic  similarities 
and  dissimilarities  between  them. 

Again,  there  are  many  nations  within  each  of  these 
great  groups,  which  have  certain  general  resemblances 
and  otherwise,  as  groups  and  as  individuals.  And  so 
through  all  smaller  groups  such  as  tribes,  highlanders, 
lowlanders,  country-folk,  town-folk,  soldiers,  sailors, 
teachers,  pupils,  schools,  families  and  the  like,  elements 
of  likeness  and  difference  will  be  found ;  the  former 
decreasing,  and  the  latter  increasing,  as  the  groups  get 
smaller.  When  we  come  to  individuals,  as  such,  the 
elements  of  difference  are,  in  rare  cases,  so  numerous 
and  pronounced,  as  to  seem  to  almost  cut  them  off  from 
their  fellows.  Some  eccentric  geniuses  are  good  ex- 
amples of  this.  But  they  always  have  all  the  common 
attributes,  however  strangely  presented,  of  animality 
and  rationality. 

Obviously  such  significant  elements  as  these  must  be 
carefully  provided  for  in  any  system  for  securing  proper 
development.  Hence  we  must  carefully  consider  what 
we  shall  term  the  principles  of  collectivism'  and  in- 


GENERAL  PRINCIPLES  463 

dividualism  in  education.  The  former  takes  account  of 
the  common  points  of  likeness  in  a  group,  however 
large  or  small,  and  the  latter  is  concerned  with  elements 
of  difference  amongst  individuals. 

The  Principle  of  Collectivism.  —  It  is  well  to  remind 
ourselves  that  the  common  points  of  likeness  among 
things  are,  at  least  in  the  first  instance,  of  most  impor- 
tance for  us.  It  is  the  realisation  of  these  which  makes 
knowledge  possible.  When  we  have  secured  a  good 
basis  of  knowledge  about  similarities,  then  a  grasp  of 
the  elements  of  diflference  is  vital  to  progress  and  pro- 
foundness. Of  course,  the  element  of  difference  is 
always  implicit  from  the  first ;  but  it  is  likeness  which 
is  most  significant  at  the  beginnings  of  knowledge. 
This  is  true  of  the  beginning  of  life,  and,  more  or  less,  of 
all  beginnings  in  new  departments  of  knowledge.  M. 
Perez,  speaking  of  children,  "  from  the  age  of  fifteen 
months,  and  especially  between  twenty  months  and  two 
years, "  says  that :  "  They  are  very  little  on  the  look-out 
for  differences,  although  they  are  very  much  struck  by 
them  when  they  see  them ;  but  everywhere  they  are  on 
the  look-out  for  resemblances.  " 

The  great  truth  involved  in  the  above  is  this :  not 
only  can  we,  but  we  ought,  and,  indeed  must,  if  we 
desire  to  secure  the  best  development,  submit  each 
individual  of  a  group  to  exactly  similar  influences,  up 
to  a  certain  point.  This  point  is  the  limit  to  which 
we  hold  that  the  common  attributes  of  the  group  extend, 
and  the  level  to  which  the  average  individual  can  be 
developed  in  them.  To  neglect  this  truth  must  tend  to 
break  up  the  unity  and  community  of  social  life,  and  to 


464  EDUCATION 

produce  ill-balanced  and  exaggerated  forms  of  mental 
development.  To  carry  it  too  far  would  be  likely  to 
hinder  progress  by  repressing  individuality,  and  so  to 
produce  a  tendency  to  stagnation  and  deterioration. 

The  system  of  dealing  with  groups  for  educational 
purposes  will,  so  long  as  the  common  likenesses  in  the 
groups  are  exhaustively  dealt  with,  serve  to  maintain 
the  elements  of  diversity  between  different  groups,  and 
so  have  a  considerable  efiPect  in  preserving  a  general 
kind  of  individuality,  if  the  term  may  be  allowed  —  in 
the  sense  that  Scotchmen,  as  a  race,  may  be  said  to  have 
a  racial  individuality. 

Hence  the  element  of  nationality  in  a  system  of 
education  is  not  only  legitimate  but  necessary.  Not 
that  there  should  be  any  endeavour  to  crystallise 
national  traits,  but  that  unless  the  qualities  which,  are 
expressed  in  the  national  character  are  cultivated  to  a 
reasonable  extent,  an  important  part  of  the  individual 
will  be  neglected.  The  aim  should  be  so  to  develop 
such  national  traits  that  the  individual  may  be  able 
to  rise  superior  to  them.  A  reasonable  cosmopolitan- 
ism represents  a  wider,  deeper,  and  truer  development 
of  social  ideas  than  nationalism.  But  the  latter  is 
most  valuable  as  a  stepping-stone  to  the  former. 

This  point  is  well  put  by  Dr.  Karl  Lange.  He 
urges  that :  "  First  of  all,  it  is  indeed  clear  that  the 
matter  to  be  taught  must  on  the  whole  lie  close  to  the 
child's  experience.  Since  the  latter  has  its  root  in  the 
home  soil,  the  material  of  the  studies  must  be  taken 
from  the  national  treasures  of  knowledge,  or  at  least 
stand  in  close  relation  to  national  interests,  sentiments 


GENERAL   PRINCIPLES  465 

and  ideas.  It  must,  to  be  sure,  be  subject-matter  that 
apparently  transfers  the  child  into  unknown  regions, 
but  yet  in  reality  leads  it  back  to  the  realm  of  its  most 
familiar  ideas,  its  daily  needs  and  experiences.  Such  a 
choice  of  subject-matter  presupposes  a  thorough  analysis 
of  the  sphere  of  national  thought,  an  exact  knowledge 
of  the  lasting  and  permanently  valuable  possessions  of 
the  national  culture." 

But  we  must  supplement,  extend,  interpret,  correct 
and  intensify,  such  elements  through  some  knowledge 
of,  and  by  intelligent  comparison  with,  the  culture  of 
other  nations.  Just  as  we  should,  also,  expand  the 
experiences  of  rural  life  by  a  knowledge  of  those  of  town 
life,  and  conversely. 

,So  far,  therefore,  as  education  is  held  to  be  an 
essential  part  of  the  national  life,  a  system  of  schools 
under  the  authority  of  the  central  government  and 
subject  to  a  similar  minimum,  not  maximum,  course  of 
education,  would  appear  to  be  a  national  necessity.  One 
of  the  most  important  subjects  of  instruction,  from  this 
point  of  view,  is  that  of  what  is  commonly  called 
citizenship.  Dr.  Rein  says :  "  The  schools  should  pre- 
serve and  impart  the  inherited  blessings  of  civilisation, 
those  priceless  treasures  upon  which  thousands  of  years 
have  laboured.  They  should  strive  to  develop  eflScient 
members  of  society,  that  the  people  may  never  be 
lacking  in  national  power." 

Again  Dr.  Rein  urges  that :  *'  The  state  ....  has  the 
right  to  demand  that  education  and  instruction  shall  not 
be  neglected,  that  the  schools  shall  pursue  no  course 
hostile  to  its  interests,  and  that  they  shall  attain  certain 

2g 


466  EDUCATION 

results  which  are  essential  to  its  task.  As  regards  the 
latter  it  should  fix  upon  certain  minimum  aims  to  be 
attained  by  the  various  kinds  of  schools."  This  involves 
the  question  of  the  limits  of  state  interference,  but, 
if  these  be  taken  for  granted,  all  would  probably  agree 
that  Dr.  Rein's  views  are  correct. 

The  above  is,  however,  a  political  question,  from  the 
practical  side,  and  is  here  used  as  an  illustration  and 
not  as  an  argument.  The  general  educational  idea 
underlying  it  is  that  which  is  expressed  in  the  term 
**  the  principle  of  collectivism."  Seek  to  develop  the 
greatest  aggregate  of  powers  as  well  the  highest 
maximum  in  each,  is  the  conclusion  which  is  forced 
upon  us  by  theory  and  practice ;  and  it  is  a  particular 
application  of  this  truth  which  we  have  been  dealing 
with. 

An  interesting  point  arises  here  in  connection  with 
the  question  whether  girls  and  boys  should  receive  the 
same  course  of  education.  So  far  as  the  foregoing  is 
accepted  as  sound,  the  conclusion  is  obvious.  To  the 
extent  to  which  girls  and  boys  can  rightly  be  regarded 
as  forming  but  one  group  with  regard  to  certain 
common  qualities,  to  that  extent  both  should  undergo 
an  exactly  similar  course  of  education.  And  this 
should  be  continued  so  long  as  the  conditions  hold. 

But  whenever,  and  in  whatever  respect,  the  difference 
of  sex  requires  educational  conditions  which  conflict 
with  one  another,  then,  and  therefore,  girls  must  form 
one  group,  and  boys  another,  for  educational  purposes. 
It  is  a  case  in  which  what  we  may  term  the  class- 
individuality  must  receive  its  proper  attention. 


GEx\ERAL   PRINCIPLES  467 

Whether  or  no  there  ever  really  is  such  a  ground  of 
educational  division  between  girls  and  boys  during  that 
part  of  their  lives  which  is  ordinarily  given  up  to  school 
work,  is  a  question  which  lies  outside  our  present 
province.  One  point  may,  however,  be  submitted  for 
consideration.  So  far  as  education  "proper  is  concerned, 
the  specific  training  of  girls  for  domestic  work  is  as 
much  a  matter  for  technical  instruction,  as  against  pure 
education,  as  teaching  boys  those  trades  which  will  fit 
them  to  be  bread-winners.  From  the  point  of  view  of 
physical,  and  also  mental,  education,  however,  the 
general  principles  of  both  kinds  of  work  can  be  advan- 
tageously made  use  of  in  ordinary  education. 

Let  us  consider  a  few  of  the  ways  in  which  the  de- 
tails of  principle  of  collectivism  in  education  are  forced 
upon  us  by  circumstances,  and  demanded  by  the  con- 
ditions of  life. 

In  the  first  place,  so  far  as  the  life  of  the  present 
day  is  ooncerned,  the  social  organisation  more  or  less 
compels  many  elements  of  collectivism.  One  of  the 
first  and  chief  est  of  practical  necessities  is  the  fitting 
in  of  the  individual  life  with  the  common  whole.  This 
can  be  harmoniously  and  thoroughly  done  only  when 
there  is  a  general  bond  of  likeness  between  the  one  and 
the  many. 

The  social  life  as  a  whole  may  be  regarded  as  not 
only  demanding  so  much  uniformity  from  the  individual 
as  is  necessary  for  reasonable  union,  but  actually  en- 
forcing it.  Habits,  customs,  and  laws  which  society 
has  formed  and  observes  have  their  inevitable  effect  in 
moulding  the  individual  more  or  less  perfectly  to  the 


468  EDUCATION 

common  type.  Dr.  C.  A.  McMurry  has  well  said 
that:  **No  narrow,  one-sided  culture  will  ever  equip 
a  child  to  act  a  just  part  in  the  complex  social, 
political,  and  industrial  society  of  our  time  "  (General 
Method). 

Again  the  actually  existing  stores  of  accessible  know- 
ledge, and  the  general  level  of  acquirement,  in  the 
community,  will  largely  determine  the  nature  and 
extent  of  the  system,  and  its  details,  adopted  for  educa- 
tional purposes.  Since  even  pure  education  must  at 
least  take  account  of  the  need  of  so  developing  a  person 
that  he  will  be  able  to  readily  adapt  himself  to  his 
surroundings,  it  must  always  use  the  materials  which 
practical  life  offers,  and  so  use  them  that  a  reasonable 
mastery  is  obtained.  Progress  from  the  more  known  to 
the  less  known  must  always  involve  very  great  depen- 
dence on  the  concrete  and  rational  surroundings. 

Before  and  beyond  all,  from  a  practical  point  of  view, 
in  its  insistence  upon  collective  education,  is  the  element 
of  economy.  It  is  absolutely  impossible  to  provide  a 
separate  teacher  for  every  separate  pupil.  The  prepa- 
ration of  teachers,  in  any  general  organised  system  of 
teaching,  also  demands  the  same  kind  of  economy. 
But  it  may  be  remarked,  in  passing,  that  if  this  idea  of  • 
economy  is  carried  too  far  it  soon  results  in  mischievous 
waste.  A  teacher  with  too  many  scholars  means  many 
scholars  with  too  little  teaching. 

Then  there  are  the  inevitable  effects  which  those 
influences  which  are  exactly  similar,  for  all  practical 
purposes,  must  have  upon  minds  which  are,  as  mental 
organisms,  likewise  similar.     For  example,  a  rose  and  a 


GENERAL   PRINCIPLES  -469 

daisy  have,  respectively,  exactly  similar  eflfects  upon,  and 
are  distinguished  from  each  other  in  the  same  general 
sense  by,  every  rational  being  who  properly  uses  his  senses 
and  judgments  with  regard  to  them.  This  is  essential ; 
for,  were  it  not  so,  it  would  be  impossible  for  us  to  com- 
municate with  each  other  about  these  two  flowers  in  any 
intelligible  manner.  Thus  the  uniformity  of  the  actions 
and  influences  of  things  upon  mind,  and  the  uniformity 
of  the  reactions  of  minds  to  similar  stimuli  compel  a 
like  constitution  and  development  of  minds,  with  the 
same  general  environment,  to  a  certain  extent. 

Next  we  may  see  in  what  ways  the  principle  of 
collectivism  is  realised  in  education.  In  the  first  place 
there  is  the  fact  that  a  single  educator  can  deal  with  a 
group  of  individuals.  How  large  this  group  may  be 
will  depend  upon  a  great  many  practical  elements,  and 
can  only  be  decided  by  the  results  of  a  good  deal  of 
experience.  It  is  a  question  which  belongs  to  the  art 
of  education.  From  the  theoretical  side  it  is  necessary 
that  the  group  should  be  composed  of  individuals  with 
as  many  general  resemblances  as  possible ;  and,  in  fact, 
with  respect  to  the  subjects  used  for  educational  pur- 
poses, and  the  extent  to  which  they  are  taught,  the 
members  of  the  group  should  be  very  closely  similar 
to  each  other. 

It  follows  also  that  a  common  curriculum  may,  and 
should,  be  used  up  to  the  extent  that  the  average 
capacity  of  the  group  is  found,  or  judged,  to  be  equal 
to.  How  high  this  level  is  to  be  must  be  decided  by 
the  educator  according  to  his  knowledge  and  estimate 
of  the  powers  of  the  individuals  in  the  group.     This  is 


470  EDUCATION 

a  matter  which  demands  very  full  knowledge,  wide 
experience,  and  ripe  judgment.  There  is  of  course  a 
certain  universal  minimu  m  for  the  averagely  normal  in- 
dividual and  the  extent  of  this  is  pretty  generally  agreed 
upon.  But  any  given  group  needs  to  be  dealt  with  on 
its  own  merits,  for  its  average  may  possibly  be  con- 
siderably above  or  below  this,  as  in  the  case,*  say,  of  a 
class  consisting  of  those  who  have  won,  and  are  trying 
for  other,  special  scholarships,  and  a  class  of  the  most 
backward  and  dull  boys  in  a  school.  The  standard  of 
judgment  will  always  be  the  general  minimum  for  the 
averagely  normal  individual. 

The  number  of  subjects  included  in  a  common 
curriculum  will  be  such  as  are  held  to  be  neces- 
sary to  influence  the  development  of  all  the  well- 
marked  common  mental  characteristics.  Speaking 
generally  they  will  be  those  which  affect  the  feeling, 
knowing,  and  willing  powers,  in  all  their  definitely 
distinct  manifestations.  Music,  art,  sports,  and  games 
to  develop  the  feelings ;  history,  tales  of  adventures, 
biographies,  travels,  novels,  morals,  and  religion,  to 
influence  the  sentiments;  geography,  the  arts,  and 
the  applied  sciences  to  minister  to  the  growth  of  prac- 
tical knowing ;  the  pure  and  mental  sciences  to  develop 
the  purely  rational ;  and  rules,  duties,  occupations, 
systematic  work,  and  conditions  involving  general 
independence,  to  secure  the  advance  of  willing.  These 
are  the  kinds  of  arrangements  which  have  to  be  care- 
fully worked  out  in  detail,  accordiug  to  the  other 
educational  principles. 

Still  another  way  in  which  this  principle  is  realised 


GENERAL  PRINCIPLES  471 

is  in  collective,  or  class,  demonstration.  On  the 
assumption  that  the  same  illustrations,  experiments, 
opportunities  of  observation,  words,  and  the  like,  will 
appeal  in  similar  ways  to  similar  minds,  the  educator 
feels  justified  in  condacting  class  demonstrations.  In 
the  same  way,  and  on  like  grounds,  it  is  held  that  a 
uniform  series  of  mental  and  physical  exercises  will 
produce  substantially  similar  effects  upon  the  minds 
and  bodies  of  a  properly  selected  group  of  individuals. 

Finally,  we  will  mention  some  of  the  effects  of  the 
principle  of  collectivism  in  education.  Perhaps  one  of 
the  most  beneficial  results  is  the  development  of  the 
social  sympathies.  The  influences  which  the  many 
exert  upon  the  one,  and  each  upon  all,  are  the  very 
foundation  elements  of  mutual  consideration,  compro- 
mise, disciplined  co-operation,  public  opinion,  toleration, 
common  interests,  the  sense  of  corporate  life,  and  the 
like,  which  form  the  links  which  bind  together  a  com- 
munity. Hence  we  may  regard  these  results  as  not 
only  involving  a  very  great  development  of  the  higher 
sentiments,  but  as  also  including  the  very  best  training 
for  the  wider  social  life  of  the  whole  community. 

This  applies  as  much  to  the  purely  intellectual  feel- 
ings as  to  the  ethical.  The  love  of  knowledge  for  its 
own  sake,  the  sense  of  the  community  of  knowledge, 
intellectual  tolerance,  rational  co-operation  and  sub- 
ordination, and  so  on,  are  all  fostered  by  common 
mental  experiences,  aims,  and  acquirements. 

There  is,  too,  a  strong  element  of  encouragement  in 
collective  education.  The  feeling  that  so  many  are  all 
striving  together  for  a  like  result  is  apt  to  give  a  sense 


472  EDUCATION 

of  power,  as  though  a  mental  difficulty  which  would 
defeat  an  individual  cannot  possibly  resist  the  united 
efforts  of  a  group.  It  is  somewhat  of  an  inspiration, 
which  comes  from  the  force  of  numbers.  After  the 
same  manner  a  man,  who  is  by  himself  a  coward  in  the 
face  of  difficulty  or  danger,  may  be  capable  of  facing 
serious  risks  as  one  of  a  group  inspired  by  a  common 
purpose. 

Emulation  is  aroused  amongst  the  individuals  in  a 
group  engaged  on  similar  work.  Up  to  a  certain  point 
this  is  undoubtedly  an  inevitable  and  wholesome  fea- 
ture ;  but  beyond  this  it  is  distinctly  mischievous,  and 
may  become  a  serious  mental,  physical,  and  moral 
danger.  It  may  lead  to  too  long  and  violent  effort, 
resulting  in  a  serious  mental  and  physical  breakdown 
through  overwork ;  and  it  is  likely  to  give  rise  to 
personal  jealousy,  ill-feeling,  enmity  and  conffict. 
More  especially  are  these  things  lively  to  arise  if  the 
element  of  emulation  is  unwisely  stimulated  by  artificial 
rewards. 

Unless  groups  are  carefully  selected,  and  even  when 
they  are,  nervous  and  timid  individuals  may  suffer  a 
good  deal  through  being  required  to  take  a  more  or 
less  public  part  in  the  common  work.  Such  should  be 
allowed  some  time  to  get  used  to  their  surroundings, 
and  should  be  excused  as  much  as  possible  of  the  more 
public  elements. 

The  very  great  extra  force,  and  the  spedfio  advan- 
tages, which  collective  work  may  put  into  the  deve- 
loping influences  are  well  seen  in  the  mental  vigour, 
robustness,  self-dependence,  tolerance,  and  general  tone 


GENERAL   PRINCIPLES  473 

of  the  average  public  schoolboy,  as  compared  with  the 
more  quiet,  refined,  dependent,  and  often  dogmatic, 
condition  of  mind  of  the  ordinary  boy  when  taught  at 
home  by  a  private  tutor.  Each  doubtless  gains  much 
that  the  other  loses,  but  the  collective  elements  are 
certainly  valuable  and  necessary. 

Collectivism  in  education,  therefore,  means  much 
greater  force,  and  new  features,  in  many  of  the  deve- 
loping influences,  though  less  in  others,  whether  these 
are,  in  themselves^  either  for  good  or  evil. 

To  whatever  point,  with  respect  to  any  given  group, 
it  is  held  that  collective  education  can  be  profitably 
carried,  for  general  purposes,  in  so  far  specialisation  of 
any  kind  is  excluded.  Every  individual  has  more  or 
less  of  every  ordinary  human  power,  and  this  justifies 
us  in  insisting  that  a  certain  amount  of  quite  general 
education  is  an  indispensable  preliminary  to  special 
education. 

In  most  respects  each  person  has  an  average  amount 
of  power  and  capacity,  and  may  be  said  to  be  normal. 
In  other  instances  every  one  is  more  or  less  below  or 
above  the  average.  Collectivism  in  education  is  there- 
fore the  universal  rule.  It  seeks  to  realise,  in  all,  what 
Herbart  calls  the  many-sidedness  of  interest,  but  it 
dees  not  exclude  individuality.  For,  as  Herbart  him- 
self points  out :  "  There  are  many  individualities ; 
the  idea  of  many-sidedness  is  but  one.  The  former  is 
contained  in  the  latter  collectively  as  the  part  in  the 
whole.  And  the  part  can  be  measured  by  the  whole ; 
it  can  also  be  enlarged  to  the  whole." 

Specialisation  must  not  be  mistaken  for  individuali- 


474  EDUCATION 

sation.  The  former  has  reference  to  the  fact  that 
every  one  is  likely  to  take  up  some  special  kind  of 
mental  or  physical  work,  whatever  his  characteristics 
may  be,  and  will,  therefore,  need  more  or  less  special 
preparation  for  it ;  whilst  the  latter  refers  to  the  culti- 
vation of  a  person's  special  powers  quite  apart  from  any 
particular  work  in  which  he  may  afterwards  engage. 
When  the  two  coincide,  then  the  maximum  result  may 
be  expected. 

The  Average  and  the  Normal. — A  few  words  as  to  the 
difference  between  these  two  ideas  may  help  to  prevent 
confusion  with  regard  to  the  principle  of  collectivism 
in  education,  in  which  both  ideas  are  involved. 

The  normal  may  be  loojsed  upon  as  a  universal  ideal 
average.  As  we  have  said,  every  ordinary  individual, 
as  a  whole,  approaches  more  or  less  closely  to  this,  but 
not  one  actually  coincides  with  it  in  any  one  respect, 
and  much  less  in  all  points.  Hence  it  is  that  whilst 
every  ordinary  individual  can  acquire  a  certain  mini- 
mam  of  power  and  skill  in  all  common  human  capaci- 
ties, yet  it  is  necessary  to  form  separate  groups  for 
different  capacities  so  as  to  get  the  maximum  of  actual 
general  development. 

Such  groups  must  be  dealt  with  not  according  to 
what  is  normal,  but  what  is  actual.  In  other  words 
a  practical  average  must  be  adopted.  Average  will 
then  have  its  ordinary  meaning,  viz.,  that  which  is 
about  half-way  between  the  extremes.  This  assumes 
that  we  make  a  sort  of  quantitative  estimate  of  the 
value  of  qualities. 

The  idea  of  an  average  as  a  standard  for  educational 


GENERAL   PRINCIPLES  475 

purposes  will  be  very  mialeading  and  mischievous,  if  it 
be  not  carefully  remembered  that  the  more  widely  the 
extremes  are  separated  from  each  other,  the  less  will 
Buch  a  standard  be  suitable  for  each  individual  in  a 
group.  It  is  from  this  point  of  view  that  it  is  urged 
that  ail  the  members  of  a  group  for  educational  pro- 
cesses should  be  as  nearly  as  possible  equal  to  each 
other  in  the  power,  or  powers,  needed  for  the  educative 
influences  which  it  is  proposed  to  apply. 

Not  less  important  is  it  that  this  standard  should  not 
in  any  way  be  regarded  as  a  fixed  one,  so  far  as  it 
concerns  a  given  group.  Very  great  care  and  skill  will 
be  required  to  determine  what  it  should  be  at  first, 
when  a  new  group  is  formed ;  and  it  will  be  quite  as 
difficult  to  keep  it  in  accord  with  the  growing  know- 
ledge and  capacity  of  the  average  individual  of  the 
group. 

The  great  difference  between  the  universal  ideal 
normal,  and  the  average  of  a  group,  is,  of  course,  best 
seen  in  the  case  of  two  groups,  one  of  which  is  made 
up  of  very  dull  pupils  and  the  other  of  exceptionally 
bright  ones.  Both  groups  are  considerably  removed 
from  the  normal,  and  each  has  its  own  ayerage. 

The  Principle  of  Individualism. — To  generally  neglect 
the  element  of  individuality  in  persons  would  be  in 
efifect  to  very  much  limit  and  repress  the  general  pro- 
gress of  the  race.  For  it  is  chiefly  to  the  new  lines  of 
thought  and  action  which  have  been  taken  by  persons 
of  strong  and  well -developed  individuality  that  many 
of  the  greatest  steps  of  progress  are  due.  Great  leaders, 
thinkers,  statesmen,  scientists,  and  workers,  have  been 


476  EDUCATION 

men  whose  personalities  have  been  exceptional,  it  may 
be  to  the  extent  of  eccentricity,  or  even  monomania. 

Nothing  is  so  likely  to  be  unprogressive  as  a  tho- 
roughly homogeneous  group.  Although  the  conditions 
which  result  from  the  successful  carrying  out  of  the 
principle  of  collectivism  in  education  are  indispensable 
for  sound  progress,  both  general  and  individual ;  yet, 
in  itself,  the  effort  to  secure  uniformity  is  obviously 
opposed  to  very  much  progress,  because  the  advance 
will  have  to  be  limited  to  the  capacity  of  the  averaga 
On  the  other  hand,  if  the  ablest  members  of  a  group 
are  aided  and  encouraged  in  developing  their  strong 
points  to  the  greatest  advantage,  the  final  result  may 
be  a  considerable  intensifying  and  enriching  of  the 
general  rational  environment  of  the  whole  group. 

Whilst  the  sacrificing  of  the  general  welfare  to  a 
particular  development  is,  finally,  bad  for  even  the 
special  power,  it  is  equally  true  that  the  reasonable 
furthering  of  individual  powers  tends  to  enrich  the 
whole,  both  directly  and  indirectly.  Directly  because 
the  extra  nourishment  and  exercise  must  affect  the 
whole  mind  to  some  extent ;  and  indirectly  because  of 
the  reflective  nature  of  mind.  If  great  shrewdness  is 
developed  in  a  person  with  regard  to  a  certain  line  of 
thought  or  action,  it  means  that  certain  habits  have 
been  acquired  which  are  sure  to  affect  the  whole  mind, 
to  a  greater  or  lesser  degree. 

If  the  development  of  a  man's  individuality  be 
ignored,  his  greatest  force  and  value  is  likely  to  be 
sacrificed.  So  long  as  the  individuality  is  not  vicious, 
it  involves  the  greatest  good  that  either  its  possessor 


GENERAL  PRINCIPLES  477 

himself  or  the  community  can  obtain  from  his  life. 
The  whole  world  is  out  of  joint  to  one  who  finds  his 
keenest  and  most  constant  desires  almost  invariably 
neglected  or  repressed.  The  history  of  the  struggle  of 
those  great  men  who,  possessed  of  overwhelming  desires 
to  gratify  the  inclinations  of  their  genius,  have  been 
compelled  to  engage  in  work  entirely  opposed  to  their 
nature  supplies  plenty  of  evidence  of  this. 

Every  individual  should  be  able,  in  the  fullest 
and  truest  sense,  to  "live  his  own  life,'*  as  we  ex- 
press it.  This  does  not  exclude,  but  depends  upon,  a 
reasonable  conformity  with  the  common  life.  The  idea 
of  absolute  independence  would  probably  mean,  when 
logically  applied,  a  more  or  less  rapid  movement  to 
savagery  and  the  extinction  of  the  race  ;  for  each  person 
would  have  to  be  able  to  supply  all  his  own  wants,  and 
this  wonld  necessitate  that  they  should  be  of  the  most 
primitive  kind.  Even  if  we  assume  that  we  could  start 
by  appropriating  all  the  present  possessions  of  the  race, 
purely  individual  effort  could  no  more  maintain  them 
than  it  could  have  produced  them. 

Again,  the  most  elementary  forms  of  the  conjugal  and 
domestic  states  involve  the  common  life,  and  the  sacri- 
fice of  these  would  certainly  involve  the  extinction  of 
the  race.  In  any  case  it  is  obvious  that  whatever  evils 
may  arise  from  the  collective  life,  the  advantages  of  it 
are  very  extensive  and  definite.  It  is  by  united  efibrts 
that  mankind  has  made  the  greatest  progress.  The 
most  primitive  as  well  as  the  most  highly  developed 
forms  of  humanity  have  the  collective  element  in  them. 
The  greatest  individualities  have  been  the  outcomes  of 


478  EDUCATION 

the  most  civilised  forms  of  collective  life.  It  is  worth 
while  to  emphasise  and  insist  upon  this  mutual  inter- 
dependence of  the  individual  and  the  collective  life,  for 
there  are  many  dangers  attending  the  ignoring  of  it. 

How,  then,  can  we  secure  the  best  conditions  for 
developing  the  individuality  of  each  person.  Clearly 
the  very  first  thing  required,  and  the  most  diflScult  to 
acquire,  is  some  knowledge  of  its  nature  in  any 
given  case.  The  diflSculty  lies  in  the  fact  that  indi- 
viduality usually  consists  in  a  special  intensity  or 
tendency  of  ordinary  mental  powers,  possessed  by  a 
particular  person.  There  is  no  reason  whatever  to 
suppose  that  any  person  has  got  a  power  which  is  abso- 
lutely and  fundamentally  different  from  what  is  pos- 
sessed by  others.  Such  a  thing  would  imply  a  diflFerent 
kind  of  human  being  from  those  we  know. 

To  know  the  individuality  of  a  person  is,  therefore, 
to  know  which  of  his  particular  mental  powers  have  a 
special  intensity  or  tendency  (bias),  and  how  these 
interact  on  each  other  and  the  whole  mind.  The  body 
of  a  person  has  also  individuality,  as :  in  the  appearance 
of  the  face :  the  gait :  great  swiftness  of  movement : 
delicacy  of  touch  :  capacity  for  particular  games,  sports 
and  pastimes :  and  so  on.  These  also  involve  special 
details  of  intensity  and  tendency,  of  certain  features, 
and  the  resulting  variety  in  the  total  complex. 

But  such  a  knowledge  can  be  gained  only  by  well- 
informed,  carefully  trained,  skilful  scientific  observers  ; 
for  a  fall  recognition  of  all  the  psychological  and  physio- 
logical elements  and  details  involved  is  necessary,  before 
the  particular  differences  can  be  discriminated.     This 


GENERAL   PRINCIPLES  479 

is  no  case  in  which  scientifically  ignorant  persons 
should  rush  in  where  wise  men  walk  warily. 

All  the  conditions  which  were  laid  down  as  guarantees 
for  accuracy  in  obtaining  knowledge  through  communi- 
cation should  be  rigorously  enforced.  Not  only  is  the 
problem  a  very  difficult  and  delicate  one  with  regard  to 
the  interests  of  the  individual,  but  the  elements  are 
very  complex  and  intricate.  It  requires  great  skill  to 
be  able  to  note  what  is  in  one's  own  mind,  and  very 
much  more  to  judge  by  systematic  observation  of  his 
actions  and  words  of  what  is  in  another's. 

A  very  suggestive  illustration  of  what  is  at  issue  is 
afforded  by  the  relation  of  a  doctor  to  his  patient. 
The  patient  himself  can  give  only  a  limited,  and  often 
very  inaccurate,  account  of  what  his  condition  is.  He 
judges  wrongly  of  his  own  experiences,  and  often  when 
he  judges  rightly  he  expresses  himself  wrongly,  as 
every  one  does  in  dealing  with  what  is  technical  and 
unfamiliar. 

As  a  rule  a  trained  nurse  can  give  a  far  more  exact 
and  extensive  account  of  the  physical  condition  of  a 
patient,  at  least  in  so  far  as  scientific  precision  is  con- 
cerned, than  the  patient  himself.  But  the  nurse  has 
usually  a  comparatively  limited  knowledge  ;  and  is  far 
from  discriminating  all  the  common  elements  in  the 
general  condition,  much  less  the  peculiar  and  excep- 
tional. 

Perhaps  the  worst  observer,  for  strictly  scientific 
purposes,  is  a  relative  or  friend  who  has  no  special 
knowledge  and  is  much  concerned  about  the  patient. 
With   keen   attention   such   an   one   notices   all    that 


480  EDUCATION 

appeals  to  him.  But  through  ignorance  and  interest  he 
will  be  likely  to  exaggerate  what  he  supposes  to  be 
favourable  symptoms,  and  minimise  the  unfavourable 
or  otherwise.  Again,  those  which  he  thus  notes  will 
probably  be  only  superficial  after  all ;  for  the  deeper 
and  more  significant  symptoms  usually  require  the 
skilled  and  instructed  attention. 

Ordinary  persons  who  only  see  the  patient  occa- 
sionally and  for  brief  periods  would,  as  a  rule,  be  entirely 
useless  so  far  as  obtaining  any  trustworthy  evidence 
from  them  is  concerned. 

It  is  only  the  well-informed,  thoroughly  trained, 
experienced,  skilful,  scientific  observation  of  the  doctor 
himself  that  is  able  to  discriminate  the  elements  in- 
volved. His  judgment  and  power  of  rightly  relating 
what  he  observes  can  alone  give  a  satisfactory  basis  for 
scientific  treatment.  And  his  observation  is  aided  by 
all  the  mechanical  appliances  which  knowledge  and 
skill  have  discovered  for  giving  precision,  detail,  and 
completeness  of  information.  Not  that  he  disregards 
the  evidence  which  other  persons  can  supply ;  on  the 
contrary  he  is  glad  to  receive  much  of  it ;  but  he  treats 
it  as  that  which,  for  the  most  part,  can  at  best  be  only 
suggestive,  and  confirmatory  of  his  own  observation. 
Of  course  there  are  certain  obvious  symptoms,  which 
any  intelUgent  person  can  take  account  of,  and  some 
mechanical  observations  which  they  can  make. 

Similarly  with  mental  matters,  it  is  only  the  technical 
expert  who  is  really  qualified  to  make  scientifically 
trustworthy  observations,  to  appreciate  the  significance 
of  the   knowledge    thus   gained,   and  to  prescribe  a 


GENERAL  PRINCIPLES  481 

suitable  course  of  technical  treatment.  In  other  words, 
it  is  the  educationist  who  is  the  only  fit  and  proper 
person  to  deal  authoritatively  with  the  question  of 
individuality  for  educational  purposes.  By  an  educa- 
tionist we  mean  one  who  has  been  trained  in  the 
practical  knowledge  of,  and  taught  in  the  rational 
study  of,  the  phenomena  and  laws  which  are  dealt 
with  in  the  science  of  education. 

The  teacher  can  give  valuable  information  up  to  a 
certain  point  as  to  the  evidences  which  he  has  observed. 
By  a  teacher  is  meant  one  who  is  able  to  intelligently 
carry  out  the  practical  processes  involved  in  an  educa- 
tive course,  but  has  not,  necessarily,  the  deeper  know- 
ledge of  the  educationist. 

Parents  and  others  may  have  more  or  less  observed 
children,  and  the  results  of  their  observations  may  be 
of  greater  or  lesser  value;  but  they  must  always  be 
received  with  the  very  greatest  caution,  and  only 
accepted,  except  as  suggestive  of  courses  of  inquiry  and 
experiment,  after  the  severest  scientific  criticism.  But 
it  is  always  worth  while  to  collect  as  much  of  such 
evidence  as  possible  for  purposes  of  scientific  investi- 
gations. 

There  are  several  special  dangers  attending  the 
study  of  individuals,  more  especially  children,  with 
respect  to  their  individuality,  which  it  may  be  helpful 
to  mention.  Forgetting  the  great  basis  of  similarity 
which  prevails,  there  may  be  a  very  one-sided  and 
exaggerated  view  taken  of  what  is  involved  in  the 
total  difierence.  If  the  attention  is  fixed  too  much  on  a 
particular  element  of  difference,  this  may  be  thought  to 

2h 


J 


482  EDUCATION 

affect  every  part  of  the  whole.  We  may,  so  to  put  it, 
miss  seeing  the  mountain  through  looking  too  closely  at 
the  mole-hill. 

The  vagueness  and  indefiniteness  of  early  ideas  may 
easily  appear  as  profundity  and  universality.  An 
adult  observer  is  very  liable  to  read  into  certain  thought 
forms  of  the  child  his  own  content  of  thought.  If 
once  a  person  gets  the  idea  that  there  is  a  great  deal 
behind  the  beginner's  thought,  he  will  veiy  soon 
discover,  at  least  to  his  own  satisfaction,  greater 
mysteries  in  the  attempts  at  thought  of  the  child,  than 
in  the  most  profound  explicit  reasonings  of  the  philo- 
sopher. 

We  ought  not  to  expect  to  find  wonders  in  the  child's 
thoughts,  but  rather  wonder  that  we  find  so  much  of 
ordinary  content.  The  child  is  doubtless  much  more 
puzzled,  and  filled  with  what  wonder  it  is  capable  of,  by 
the  want  of  clear  meaning  in  its  own  thoughts,  than  the 
observer  is  by  what  he  may  suppose  to  be  their  fulness 
of  meaning.  If  there  be  in  the  child's  mind  anything 
like  what  some  enthusiastic  seekers  after  the  wonderful 
would  have  us  believe,  it  must  get  surprisingly  ignorant 
as  it  gets  older. 

Language  as  used  by  beginners  is  often  entirely 
misleading.  Of  course  children  are  often  unable  to 
express  their  thoughts  through  want  of  a  suiBBicient 
command  of  language ;  but  more  often  it  is  because  the 
ideas  themselves  are  vague,  half-formed,  or  incoherent. 
Adults  with  a  practically  perfect  command  of  language, 
often  cannot  express  what  first  comes  to  them  in  a  new 
department  of  knowledge,  for  similar  reasons.     Again, 


GENEKAL   PRINCIPLES  483 

children  often  repeat  words  and  phrases  in  unnsual  com- 
binations simply  because  they  have,  for  some  reason  or 
other,  associated  and  remembered  odds  and  ends  of 
sentences. 

Finally,  it  should  be  remembered  that  there  is  much 
of  the  child  in  the  adult,  and,  therefore,  the  more  fully 
we  can  know  an  adult,  the  better  we  shall  be  able  to 
guide  and  check  our  observations  of  children.  Much 
suggestion  and  guidance  can  also  be  obtained  from  the 
study  of  the  most  interesting  history  of  primitive  races ; 
for  therein  we  see  the  childhood  of  mankind,  which  is 
one  of  the  best  introductions  to  a  knowledge  of  the 
childhood  of  the  individual. 

When  we  have  obtained,  through  careful  and  con- 
siderable observation,  experiment,  and  thought,  what 
we  believe  to  be  a  sound  view  of  that  which  mainly 
constitutes  the  individuality  of  the  learner,  we  shall 
have  the  fullest  possible  guide  to  the  points  of  special 
treatment  which  will  be  required  in  his  particular  case. 
If  a  pupil  be  exceptionally  phlegmatic  or  lively, 
imaginative  or  unimaginative,  optimistic  or  pessimistic, 
prosaic  or  poetic,  reflective  or  active,  generous  or  selfish, 
scientific  or  artistic,  and  the  like,  we  shall  have  to  make 
use  of  the  different  educational  principles,  or  different 
features  of  them,  with  varying  fulness  and  force. 

An  exact  knowledge  of  the  individuality  of  a  persoD 
will  enable  the  educator  to  use  the  various  principles  to 
the  greatest  effect.  He  will  know  how  best  to  appeal 
to  the  individuality  through  the  principle  of  interest, 
and  will  so  obtain  the  further  advantage  of  the  maximum 
of  self-activity.     That  which  gives  the  greatest  pleasure. 


484  EDUCATION 

because  it  is  most  in  harmony  with  the  personality,  can 
be  wisely  made  use  of,  and  thus  the  greatest  amount  of 
co-operation  secured,  through  the  principle  of  sympa- 
thetic control.  It  will  be  seen  whether  the  concrete 
elements  of  knowledge  must  be  specially  insisted  upon, 
to  correct  a  tendency  to  hasty  imagination,  as  in  filling 
in  the  details  of  a  percept  by  mental  pictares ;  or,  on 
the  other  hand,  if  the  imagination  needs  particular 
attention,  so  as  to  get  the  learner  to  see  behind  and 
beyond  his  own  little  world,  as  in  picturing  objects  and 
scenes  outside  the  range  of  actual  experience. 

And  so  all  the  elements  of  various  individualities  can 
be  related  to  the  different  educational  principles.  But 
it  must  always  be  understood  that  the  general,  or 
collective,  elements  in  the  individuality  have  been  pro- 
vided for  by  the  ordinary  collective  applications  of  these 
principles.  It  is  only  an  extended  and  special  applica- 
tion of  them  that  we. are  now  considering. 

By  such  a  special  adaptation  of  principles  to  persons 
we  may  hope  to  obtain  the  very  highest  values  of  indi- 
vidual development,  and,  through  these,  the  greatest 
possible  progress  of  the  race.  Not  only,  therefore,  is 
the  individual  directly  advantaged  by  this,  but  also  the 
race ;  and  thus  other  individuals  are  indirectly  advan- 
taged. Progress  is  cumulative  for  one  and  all.  Each 
is  for  all,  and  all  for  each. 

Such  a  knowledge  of  the  individual  as  is  required 
for  the  above  cannot  possibly  be  obtained  from  obser- 
vations confined  to  the  schoolroom,  where  both  the 
conduct  of  the  child  and  the  environment  are  so 
largely   artificial.      The    educator    must  observe    the 


GENERAL   PRINCIPLES  485 

child  during  its  free  and  unconstrained  play,  in  social 
intercourse,  and  under  as  many  varying  conditions  as 
possible.  He  must  also  obtain  as  much  reliable  infor- 
mation as  he  can  about  the  child  from  its  parents,  and 
others. 

Something  must  now  be  said  as  to  the  way  in  which 
this  principle  affects  any  general  scheme  of  education. 
Its  function  is  to  secure  the  full  and  final  value  of  the 
individual,  and  the  way  in  which  this  may  be  realised 
must  be  indicated. 

However  predominantly  the  individuality  of  a  person 
may  appear  to  belong  to  only  one  or  two  particular 
powers,  it  will  be  found,  on  careful  observation  and 
analysis,  that  it  affects  all ;  and  it  is  doubtless  made  up 
of  a  combination  of  details  proceeding  from  all  the 
powers,  though  manifesting  itself  chiefly  through  one  or 
two.  Hence  a  certain  amount  of  individuality  will 
probably  have  to  be  provided  for,  in  every  separate  item 
of  development. 

This  will  mean  that  whilst  by  far  the  greater  part  of 
all  early  education  is  collective,  a  small  part  will  have 
to  be  individualistic.  In  other  words,  each  individual 
in  a  group  must  receive  some  small  amount  of  personal 
help  even  with  respect  to  the  processes  and  products  of 
collective  education.  This  will  be  necessary  throughout 
the  collective  course.  Hence,  class-demonstrations  will 
be  followed,  as  far  as  possible,  by  individual  testing  and 
such  additional  personal  help  as  is  shown  to  be  required. 
Class  exercises  will  give  many  opportunities  for  indi- 
vidual attention. 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  above  has  a  very  important 


486  EDUCATION 

bearing  upon  the  actual  size  of  a  group  for  educational 
work.  It  should  never  be  so  large  that  a  reasonable 
amount  of  individual  teaching  is  impossible ;  for,  if  it 
be,  there  must  result  a  very  large  sacrifice  of  individual 
and  general  progress. 

But  by  far  the  most  important  point  connected  with 
the  principle  of  individualism  is  that  of  specialisation. 
The  element  of  individuality  demands  specialisation. 
Because  of  a  person's  special  characteristics  he  is  most 
fitted  for  certain  lines  of  development,  and  very  unfitted 
for  others.  If,  therefore,  he  is  to  fulfil  his  greatest 
possibilities  these  particular  powers  must  receive 
special  attention. 

Dr.  Hertel  has  drawn  attention  to  a  very  essential 
consideration  in  the  following  passage:  "It  is  hardly 
fair,  on  the  part  of  school  teachers,  to  claim  of  the  child 
an  exclusive  right  to  his  time.  There  is  much  which 
he  ought  to  learn  beyond  what  the  school  imposes  on 
him ;  if  he  has  any  special  talent  or  tastes — music  or 
drawing,  for  example— he  should  have  time  at  his  own 
disposal  in  which  to  cultivate  them.  He  should  be 
able  to  pursue  privately  any  of  his  school  studies  which 
^specially  attract  or  interest  him,  and  altogether  have 
more  opportunities  of  independent  growth  allowed 
him 

''Are  there  not  many  students  who  have  so  little 
knowledge  of  themselves,  their  own  powers,  tastes  and 
inclinations,  that  it  is  a  mere  matter  of  chance  what 
course  of  study  they  take  up  when  they  go  to  the 
university  ?  For  this  reason  many  a  young  man,  after 
having  wasted  a  year  or  two,  often  makes  a  complete 


GENERAL  PRINCIPLES  487 

change  and  begins  upon  a  totally  different  career. 
Those  wasted  years  might  often  have  been  saved  had  he 
had  opportunities,  while  at  school,  of  studying  a  little 
by  himself,  and  thus  of  judging  in  what  direction 
his  talents  and  predilections  lay"  (Overpressure  in 
Schools). 

The  chief  thing  to  decide  with  regard  to  this  matter 
is  the  period  at  which  the  special  attention  should  be 
given.  Happily  this  may  be  regarded  as  practically 
determined  by  the  individual  himself.  When  the 
individuality  of  a  person  is  definite  and  aggressive, 
then  it  should  be  attended  to  by  the  educator,  or  it 
will  look  after  itself,  and  almost  certainly  prejudice,  if 
not  pervert,  its  development. 

Ordinarily,  the  individuality  begins  to  assert  itself 
about  the  middle  of  the  third  great  stage  of  general 
development,  when  willing  becomes  predominant,  and 
the  individual  becomes  a  law  unto  himself.  We  may 
say  that,-  roughly,  this  is  about  the  sixteenth  or  seven- 
teenth years.  This,  therefore,  will  as  a  rule  be  the 
time  when  it  should  begin  to  receive  definite  attention. 
That  m  to  say,  this  is  the  period  when  specialisation 
should  be  considered ;  but  not,  necessarily,  begun,  for 
something  like  a  settled  preference  on  the  part  of  the 
individual  should  first  be  allowed  to  form  itself. 

There  should,  by  this  time,  be  such  a  general  de- 
velopment of  mental  powers  and  possessions  that  no 
danger  of  warping  the  individual  is  incurred.  Herbart 
points  out  this  danger.  He  says:  *'The  individual 
grasps  rightly  what  is  natural  to  him,  but  the  more  he 
exclusively  cultivates  himself  in  this  direction  the  more 


488  EDUCATION 

certainly  does  he  falsify  through  his  habitual  frame  of 
mind  every  other  impression."  Individuality  ought,  as 
a  rule,  to  be  so  developed  that  it  will  be  true  to  say 
of  the  person  :  he  is  good  in  most  things,  but  specially 
strong  in  such-and-such.  Thus  the  ideal  in  learning 
is  to  know  something  of  everything,  through  types, 
and,  so  far  as  is  possible,  everything  of  something, 
through  details. 

In  those  cases,  however,  where,  as  with  precocious 
geniuses,  the  individuality  is  definitely  and  decidedly 
developed  at  a  very  early  age,  it  should  always  receive 
proper  attention.  But  very  great  care  will  be  needed 
to  guard  against  sacrificing  the  best  development  of  the 
special  power,  through  neglecting  the  general  powers. 
A  certain  amount  of  restraint  will,  therefore,  be  neces- 
sary ;  but  this  should  never  take  the  form  of  direct  and 
positive  repression,  or  the  whole  nature  will  suffer. 

Too  much  attention  may  easily  be  given  to  the 
element  of  individuality.  It  should  be  remembered  that 
this  is  the  strongest  as  well  as  the  most  active  element  in 
an  individual.  It,  therefore,  needs  the  least  intensity 
of  stimulus.  Also  it  is  always  more  or  less  active  and 
insists  upon  being  ministered  to,  for  all  ordinary  ex- 
periences are  received  in  such  a  way  that  they  influence 
it,  and  it  influences  them. 

Dr.  Karl  Lange  remarks:  "We  admit  that  very 
strong  natures,  which  are  distinguished  by  unusual 
inner  activity,  are  accustomed  to  supply  without  the 
aid  of  others  those  apperceiving  ideas  which  make 
possible  the  comprehension  of  a  new  object  of  study, 
since  it  is  a  fact  that  a  genius  even  with  bad  instruc- 


GENERAL  PRINCIPLES  489 

tion,  by  his  own  powers,  finds  the  right  road  to  de- 
velopment." 

When  education  has  secured  a  good  basis  for  the 
special  development  of  individuality  and  has  helped  it 
forward  on  the  road  to  its  fullest,  most  vigorous,  and 
best  form,  the  individual  must  do  the  rest.  The  edu- 
cation that  has  put  the  individual  in  possession  of  his 
best  and  truest  self  has,  indeed,  done  its  perfect  work. 

The  Principle  of  Proportion — What  has  just  been  said 
about  the  principles  of  collectivism  and  individualism 
in  education  emphasises  an  element  which  has  been 
more  or  less  explicit  throughout  the  whole  of  the  dis- 
cussions concerning  the  science,  viz.,  that  of  the  propor- 
tion of  intensity,  extensity,  duration,  frequency,  and 
the  like  which  should  exist  between  various  principles, 
so  as  to  secure  the  most  effective  and  desirable  applica- 
tion of  them. 

We  must  say,  at  once,  that  this  is  a  most  difficult 
and  very  far-reaching  inquiry;  and  the  most  we  can 
do  now  is  to  suggest  some  of  the  considerations  which 
will  have  to  be  taken  into  account.  Not  until  our 
knowledge  of  the  human  being  generally,  and  of  the 
mental  sciences  in  particular,  is  much  more  extensive 
and  precise  than  it  is  at  present,  can  we  hope  to  be 
able  to  lay  down  anything  approaching  definite  conclu- 
sions on  the  matter. 

At  the  same  time,  however,  we  can,  from  our  present 
knowledge,  learn  how  to  avoid  very  exaggerated  and 
mischievous  forms  of  disproportion  in  the  application  of 
educational  principles.  What  has  been  said  about  the 
order  of  development,  the  relative  waxing  and  waning 


490  EDUCATION 

of  predominance  of  the  developing  elements,  and  the 
periods  during  which  these  may  be  expected  ordinarily 
to  take  place,  ought  to  save  us  from  serious  errors,  in 
this  respect. 

One  of  the  very  first  points  to  be  considered  will  be 
the  order  and  proportion  in  which  we  shall  attempt  to 
realise  the  discipline,  culture,  and  utility  values  of 
educational  material.  At  the  very  beginning  of  things 
it  is  certainly  the  utility  value  which  must  be  predomi- 
nantly acquired,  for  the  law  of  self-preservation  is  then 
imperative.  But  very  soon  this  must  give  way  to  the 
discipline  value,  for,  if  we  are  to  have  progress,  we 
must  have  power  and  skill. 

Hardly  less  obvious  is  it  that  the  culture  value  must 
come  last  in  order  of  predominant  development.  If 
we  accept  Matthew  Arnold's  dictum  that  to  have 
culture :  **  is  to  know  the  best  that  has  been  thought 
and  said  in  the  world;"  or  Professor  Huxley's  statement, 
that :  "  It  is  the  criticism  of  life  contained  in  litera- 
ture ; "  then  it  is  clear  that  not  only  does  it  demand 
the  highest  mental  powers,  but  that  some  amount  of 
leisure  is  also  required  for  its  fuller  acquisition. 

Professor  Huxley  has  well  said  that :  "  No  man 
ever  understood  Shakespeare  until  he  is  old,  though  the 
youngest  may  admire  him  ;  the  reason  being  that  he 
satisfies  the  artistic  instinct  of  the  youngest,  and 
harmonises  with  the  ripest  and  richest  experience  of 
the  oldest."  This  also  suggests  the  truth  so  often 
insisted  upon,  viz.,  that  there  is  always  a  concurrent  as 
well  as  a  predominant  development  of  the  different 
elements. 


GENERAL  PRINCIPLES  491 

Such  considerations  obviously  go  far  to  solve  the 
problem  of  the  place  and  the  function  of  realism  and 
humanism  in  education,  or,  to  put  it  in  concrete  form, 
of  practical  science  and  literature  in  school  work. 

Another  point  which  soon  forces  itself  upon  the 
attention  of  the  practical  educator  is,  how  much  of  the 
various  knowledge-subjects  should  he  attempt  to  im- 
part. Bousseau  has  well  said :  "  Human  intelligence 
has  its  limits.  We  can  neither  know  everything,  nor 
be  thoroughly  acquainted  with  the  little  that  other  men 

know The  question  is,  not  what  may  be  known, 

but  what  will  be  of  most  use  when  it  is  known.  From 
these  few  we  must  again  deduct  such  as  require  ripeness 
of  understanding  and  a  knowledge  of  human  relations 
which  a  child  cannot  possibly  acquire." 

Understanding  that  the  phrase  "  of  most  use,"  in  the 
above  passage,  refers  to  both  educational  and  practical 
utility,  we  may  say  that  as  much  as  can  be  received 
and  retained,  should  be,  so  long  as  the  vigour  and 
freshness  of  the  powers  are  not  prejudiced.  This 
brings  us  to  the  consideration  of  the  relation  between 
work  and  play. 

Professor  Huxley  insists  on  the  great  importance  of 
mental  relaxation,  in  the  following  words:  "I  have  no 
compassion  for  sloth,  but  youth  has  more  need  for 
intellectual  rest  than  age;  and  the  cheerfulness,  the 
tenacity  of  purpose,  and  power  of  work  which  make 
many  a  successful  man  what  he  is,  must  often  be  placed 
to  the  credit  not  of  his  hours  of  industry,  but  to  that  of 
his  hours  of  idleness,  in  boyhood.  Even  the  hardest 
worker  of  us  all,  if  he  has  to  deal  with  anything  above 


492  EDUCATION 

mere  details,  will  do  well,  now  and  again,  to  let  his 
brain  lie  fallow  for  a  space.  The  next  crop  of  thought 
will  certainly  be  all  the  fuller  in  the  ear  and  the  weeds 
fewer." 

Again,  he  remarks:  "Above  all  things,  let  my 
imaginary  pupil  have  preserved  the  freshness  and 
vigour  of  youth  in  his  mind  as  well  as  his  body.  The 
educational  abomination  of  desolation  of  the  present 
day  is  the  stimulation  of  young  people  to  work  at  high 
pressure  by  incessant  competitive  examinations." 

To  the  same  effect,  Dr.  Abbott  observes  that :  "  The 
intellect  is  like  the  body  in  requiring  the  alternation 
between  wholesome  strain  and  wholesome  relaxation,  if 
it  is  to  become  healthy  and  robust."  Dr.  Hertel,  in  his 
book  on  "  Overpressure  in  Schools,"  says :  "  We  must 
not  lose  sight  of  the  fact  that  one  long  spell  of  work  is 
far  more  exhausting  to  the  child  than  the  same  number 
of  hours  would  be  if  split  up  by  a  considerable 
interval." 

In  connection  with  this  point  it  is  instructive  to 
notice  that  in  Germany,  lectures  at  the  universities  are 
for  forty-five  minutes,  and  there  is  an  interval  of 
fifteen  minutes  between  all  lectures.  At  Oxford  and 
Cambridge  it  is  the  rule  to  give- the  whole  of  every 
afternoon  to  sports.  The  greater  the  amount  of  controlled 
educational  activity,  the  larger  should  be  the  amount  of 
free  recreative  activity.  Dr.  Hertel  informs  us  that 
when  some  of  the  Swedish  High  Schools  applied  for 
permission  to  extend  the  limits  of  continuous  instruc- 
tion, for  the  five  youngest  classes  in  the  schools,  from 
two  to  three  hours,   the    Government    referred    the 


GEMERAL   PRINCIPLES  493 

question  to  the  Medical  Society  for  an  opinion.  The 
following  is  a  summary  of  their  views  :  "  Three  hours' 
consecutive  work  is  permissible  if  an  interval  of  ten 
minutes  be  allowed  for  every  hour,  and  one  hour  of  the 
three  set  apart  for  easy  work,  such  as  singing,  writing, 
or  the  like.  After  that  there  must  be  two  hours' 
complete  rest." 

As  we  have  before  urged,  this  is  a  question  which 
demands  very  serious  attention.  The  issues  at  stake 
are  of  the  gravest  kind.  Health,  happiness,  and  useful- 
ness in  life  may  all  be  sacrificed  by  making  a  mistake 
in  this  matter.  Nothing  is  so  dangerous  as  an  unin- 
formed zeal  for  what  is  popularly  supposed  to  be  educa- 
tion, viz.,  encyclopaedic  instruction  in  words  and 
formulae. 

Sir  J.  Crichton-Browne  points  out  that:  "There 
is  no  better  preparation  for  a  stormy  life  than  a 
tranquil  and  happy  childhood,  and  sound  policy  should 
guide  us  to  postpone  as  long  as  possible  the  entrance  of 
our  children  on  that  struggle  in  which  so  much  is  to  be 

required  of  them Education  without  pressure — 

education  in  which  hereditary  restrictions,  the  laws  of 
growth,  the  constitution  of  the  organism,  the  vivifying 
power  of  happiness,  and  the  paralysing  effects  of  fear 
and  rivalry  are  held  constantly  in  view — may  .  .  . 
brace  and  strengthen  them  to  encounter  without  risk 
the  trials  that  are  in  store  for  them  "  (Introduction  to 
Dr.  Hertel's  book). 

Of  the  proportion  which  should  exist  between  the 
principles  of  collectivism  and  individualism  a  good  deal 
has  been  said.     Herbart  has  the  following  remarks  on 


494  EDUCATION 

this  matter  :  "  Some  steps  must  ....  be  taken  to 
adjust  individuality  to  character  and  many-sidedness 
The  more  individuality  is  blended  with  many- 
sidedness,  the  more  easily  will  the  character  assert  its 
sway  over  the  individual." 

He  points  out  the  danger  of  undue  attention  to 
individual  traits  in  these  words :  ''By  no  means, 
however,  should  the  presence  of  incidental  prominent 
tendencies  in  the  years  of  cultivation  be  regarded  as  a 
sign  that  they  are  to  be  further  strengthened  by  educa- 
tion. This  practice,  which  shelters  disproportion,  is 
devised  by  love  of  arbitrariness,  and  recommended  by 
bad  taste.  Doubtless  the  lover  of  the  bizarre  and  of 
caricature  would  rejoice  to  see,  instead  of  many  fully 
and  proportionately  developed  men  fit  to  move  in  rank 
and  file,  a  crowd  of  humpbacks  and  cripples  of  all 
kinds,  tumbling  wildly  over  each  other.  But  this  is 
what  happens  where  society  is  composed  of  men  of 
widely  different  modes  of  thought;  each  brags  of 
his  own  individuality,  and  no  one  understands  his 
fellows." 

To  push  the  principle  of  individualism  too  far  would 
not  only  imply  the  necessity  of  a  special  science  of 
education  for  each  human  being — which  is  in  itself 
sufficiently  absurd — but  also  that  each  human  being 
would  form  a  different  science  of  education  for  any  one 
given  individual — which  is  surely  a  "reductio  ad 
absurdum."  Equally  unscientific  is  it  to  regard  human 
beings  as  being  as  like  to  each  other  as  though  they 
were  cast  in  a  mechanical  mould. 

The  practical  educator  must  avoid  being  too  precise, 


GENERAL   PRINCIPLES  495 

or  nice,  about  matters.  The  useful  should  come  before 
the  ornamental,  and  necessities  before  luxuries.  Mr. 
Thring  urges  that:  "A  teacher  must  be  content  to 
omit  much,  and  not  be  concerned  about  the  glossiness 
of  his  work.  The  mind  of  a  working,  vigorous  little 
boy  is  much  like  his  clothes,  very  untidy,  but  very 
serviceable,  entirely  regardless  of  everything  but  the 
object  at  the  moment.  ISo  doubt  order  and  tidiness  are 
part  of  the  training;  but  dress  boots  won't  do  for 
turnip  fields,  or  mountains.  Strength  is  needed  first. 
Strong  ideas  are  wanted,  put  forth  by  an  unseen  plan.'' 
But  mountain  boots  should  be  of  good  material  and 
specially  well  made. 

It  is  not  the  educator's  duty  to  insist  that  every 
detail  of  development  which  has  been  mentioned  shall 
be  carefully  elaborated  in  the  case  of  every  child. 
Each  child  will  be  likely  to  linger  over  some  points 
through  want  of  average  ability  in  that  particular,  and 
will  skip  lightly  over  others  because  it  has  special 
power  for  such  work.  But  the  educator  must  be  able 
to  recognise  where  help  is  needed,  and  know  how  to 
give  it  in  the  best  form. 

To  put  the  principle  in  quite  general  terms,  we  may 
say  that  the  principle  of  stimulation  ought  to  procure 
energising  without  violence ;  nourishment  should  pro- 
duce keenness  and  vigour,  but  never  surfeit ;  pleasure 
ought  to  satisfy  but  not  corrupt ;  pain  should  compel 
without  cowing;  interest  should  concentrate  energy, 
not  dissipate  it ;  habituation  ought  to  secure  regularity 
without  automatism  ;  self-activity  must  bring  about  the 
progress  of  the  ego  without  egotism ;  collectivism  should 


496  EDUCATION 

cultivate  humanity  but  not  neglect  the  man ;  individ- 
ualism should  provide  for  the  man  but  not  neglect  the 
race ;  development  must  attend  to  the  details  without 
omitting  the  whole ;  gradation  should  secure  simplicity 
but  not  make  matters  too  easy ;  symbolism  should  give 
expression  and  facility  to  thought  without  verbalism ; 
repetition  ought  to  secure  frequency  whilst  avoiding 
weariness;  sympathetic  control  must  win  without 
weakness  or  indulgence ;  preparation  should  bring 
about  adaptation  without  actual  anticipation ;  inter- 
relation and  inter-dependence  ought  to  unify  but  not 
make  too  much  of  the  linking ;  analysis  and  synthesis 
must  give  the  units  and  unity  of  detail,  but  not  over- 
whelm with  them;  doing  should  secure  precision  and 
facility  in  action  but  avoid  the  mechanical ;  and  propor- 
tion must  guide  in  all  these. 

We  want  to  help  without  creating  dependence;  to 
increase  refinement  but  preserve  vigour ;  to  get  delicacy 
and  charm,  but  retain  energy,  force,  and  stamina ;  to 
adorn  the  edifice  with  the  highest  and  most  graceful 
pinnacles,  whilst  keeping  broad  and  sure  the  founda- 
tions; and  to  secure  the  unity  of  the  whole  without 
uniformity  in  each. 

The  Principle  of  Pleasure. — Something  more  may  now 
be  said  about  this  principle.  In  so  far  as  pleasure  is 
the  outcome  of  normal  conditions  acting  upon  a  normal 
being,  whenever  we  are  able  to  secure  the  fullest  and 
best  realisation  of  educational  principles  we  shall  bring 
about  ,a,  state  of  pleasure  for  the  individual  who  is  being 
educated.  Hence,  as  we  have  constantly  insisted,  the 
surest  and  soundest  way  of  securing  the  interested  co- 


GENERAL   PRINCIPLES  497 

operation  of  the  learner  is  to  provide  the  most  perfect 
conditions  for  learning. 

If  the  kind,  quality,  and  quantity,  of  the  developing 
influence  be  appropriate  to  the  powers  and  possessions 
of  the  pupil,  then  it  will  be  as  pleasurable  for  him  to 
receive  an  educative  lesson  as  to  eat  a  well-prepared 
meal  when  he  is  hungry.  The  former  does  for  the 
mind  what  the  latter. does  for  the  body,  it  supplies 
a  natural  want  in  the  most  agreeable  and  healthy 
manner. 

This  condition  of  things  is,  probably,  best  realised 
through  the  observance  of  the  educational  maxim :  from 
the  known  to  the  unknown.  The  quite  ecstatic  delight 
shown  by  the  little  people  in  kindergarten  classes,  when 
some  familiar  objects,  such  as  tea-sets,  are  made  use  of — 
with  as  near  an  approach  as  possible  to  the  actual  con- 
ditions of  ordinary  life — for  educational  purposes,  is 
really  striking,  and  very  pleasurable  to  see. 

Similarly  older  children  take  the  greatest  possible 
interest  and  delight  in  bringing  small  curiosities  from 
their  own  homes  when  they  are  to  be  used  as  subjects 
for  a  lesson.  There  is  little  difficulty,  and  immense 
advantage,  in  getting  boys  to  make  simple  apparatus, 
or  to  collect  natural  specimens,  for  science  lessons. 

Again,  the  element  of  explicit  co-operation  in  the 
educating  process  can  be  made  both  eflective  and  inter- 
esting. To  occasionally  allow  the  pupils  in  the  higher 
classes  to  put  questions  to  each  other,  and  to  the 
teacher,  about  the  subject  matter  of  a  lesson  which  has 
just  been  given  is  a  means  of  realising  this.  Or,  better 
still,   to  require — ^without    undue    pressure — that   the 

2l 


498  EDUCATION 

more  advanced  children  shall,  in  turn,  prepare  and 
impart  to  the  class  some  information  about  a  given 
topic,  which  is  well  within  their  powers,  will  do  much 
to  develop  both  self-dependence  and  a  truly  pleasurable 
interest  in  the  work  of  the  school. 

One  of  the  most  fruitful  sources  of  pleasure  in  educa- 
tion should  aiise  from  the  realising  of  the  culture 
value  of  knowledge  subjects.  If  what  we  have  said 
about  the  highest  type  of  mind  being  the  most  cultured 
be  true,  then  in  endeavouring  to  get  the  pupils  to  realise 
the  culture  elements  of  knowledge,  weare  helping  them 
to  obtain  the  highest,  and,  therefore,  the  most  delightful 
mental  values  of  things. 

In  every  department  of  school  work,  therefore,  there 
should  be  an  attempt  to  reach  such  a  standard  of 
excellence  as  will  bring  out,  clearly  and  effectively,  the 
aesthetic  elements.  In  reading  there  should  be  such  a 
standard  of  elocution  and  dramatic  feeling — where 
fitting — as  will  give  real  pleasure  to  the  hearers. 
Writing  ought  to  have  grace  and  proportion  sufficient 
to  definitely  gratify  the  eye.  Singing  should  be  so 
well  done  that  one  half  of  a  class  could  get  real  enjoy- 
ment from  hearing  the  other  half  sing.  Drawing  and 
colouring  ought  to  result  in  work  that  will  adorn  the 
school  walls.  Not  that  many  will  do  such  work,  or 
much  of  it,  but  at  least  some  should  be  obtained,  and, 
what  is  still  more  important,  a  true  appreciation  of  its 
merits  and  beauties  by  the  scholars  must  be  aroused. 
If  this  appreciation  is  secured,  so  also- is  the  most  happy 
and  helpful  stimulus  to  further  production. 

In  every  branch  of  school  work  this  pleasure-givinfj 


GENERAL   PRINCIPLES  499 

level  of  proficiency  should  be  obtained,  for  the  sake  of 
its  educational  value  as  a  stimulus  and  a  satisfaction. 
Every  pupil  ought  to  be  regarded  as  a  possible  little 
artist,  in  a  very  elementary  way,  with  respect  to  the 
work  he  does.  Not  only  is  it  one  of  the  greatest  of 
pleasures  to  give  pleasure,  but  it  is  also  one  of  the 
most  stimulating  results  of  work.  The  true  artist  pro- 
bably appreciates  and  enjoys  the  processes  of  good  work 
even  more  than  others  delight  in  the  products. 

But,  of  course,  beginners  must  not  be  left  entirely  to 
the  results  of  their  own  efforts  for  their  supply  of  the 
pleasures  which  the  aBsthetic  features  of  work  can  give. 
They  should  be  enlightened  and  encouraged  by  models 
of  design  and  finish  ;  and  these  should  be  systematically 
used  to  form  their  tastes,  and  to  arouse  their  ambition. 
From  this  point  of  view,  the  furnishing  of  a  schoolroom 
is  as  much  a  matter  for  the  expert  judgment  of  a 
scientific  educationist  as  the  formulating  of  a  course  of 
educative  lessons.  And  a  place  should  always  be  found 
for  works  of  pure  art,  which,  whilst  appealing  to  youth- 
ful sympathies  and  powers,  yet,  because  of  their  intrinsic 
beauty  are  silent  voices  that  speak  of  higher  things,  and 
best  tell  their  own  tales. 

The  principles  of  development  and  gradation  are, 
when  properly  observed,  very  powerful  agents  of 
pleasure.  They  must  be  so  applied  that  they  make 
possible  a  sure  and  solid  progress.  If  they  do  this, 
they  will  provide  a  constant  source  of  pleasure  to  the 
learner.  Nothing  is  more  gratifying  to  old  and  young 
than  the  feeling  of  conquest  and  laastery.  In  educa 
tion.  as  in  other  things,  nothing  succeeds  like  success. 


500  EDUCATION 

Again,  the  principles  of  self-activity  and  doing  are 
full  of  possibilities  as  pleasure-giving  agents.  Boys 
can,  under  capable  tuition,  be  trained  to  be  as  active, 
purposeful,  and  skilful,  in  mental  gymnastics  as  in 
physical.  And  they  can  derive  as  much  pleasure  from 
the  one  as  from  the  other.  To  this  end,  pupils  should 
play  audience  as  little  as  possible  in  educational  work. 
They  should  rather  resemble  a  team  of  football  players 
fighting  under  a  skilful  captain,  and  sharing  both  the 
work  of  conquest  and  the  glory  of  victory. 

Learners  should  seldom  be  mere  listeners,  during  the 
period  of  education  proper.  They  ought  more  often  to 
be  in  a  state  rather  of  aggressiveness  than  receptive- 
ness  :  telling  than  being  told  :  discovering  than  hearing 
of  discoveries :  experimenting  than  seeing  experiments  : 
describing  than  defining,  or  listening  to  descriptions,  and 
so  on.  And  this  if  only  because  it  is  more  agreeable  to 
the  nature  of  the  child  to  be  active  rather  than  passive. 

But,  besides  all  this,  there  should  be  in  education, 
and  for  educational  purposes,  a  supply  of  what  we  may 
call  free  pleasure,  just  as  there  should  be  periods  of  free 
recreation  and  play,  though  all  educative  work  should 
be  more  or  less  recreative  and  playful.  For,  after  all, 
the  predominance  of  the  serious  side  of  true  education 
can  never  be  wholly  ignored,  and  ought  always  to  be 
clearly  recognised  and  enforced.  Work  must  not  be- 
come play,  any  more  than  play  should  be  made  a  task. 

Free  pleasure  in  education  can  be  provided  by  making 
the  school  a  centre  of  social  life  for  the  pupils.  It  may 
be  made  a  type  of  human  life  in  the  little — a  microcosm 
of  humanity.     This  can  be  brought  about  in  one  direc- 


GENERA.L  PRINCIPLES  501 

tion,  through  the  systematic  organisation  of  games. 
Cricket,  football,  tennis,  and  other  games'  clubs,  at 
schools,  have  a  direct  and  definite  function  in  the 
general  educational  scheme.  They  develop  many  of 
the  best  ethical  and  social  qualities,  as  well  as  arouse 
the  interest  and  pride  of  the  scholars  in  their  school. 
*'  Ploreat  Etona  "  must  mean  *'  flourish  my  Eton,"  if  it 
is  to  be  really  significant  and  sincere. 

There  must  also  be  an  internal  as  well  as  an  external 
social  school-life.  The  school  community  should  have 
its  own  little  social  functions.  Receptions,  at-homes, 
musical  parties,  dances,  and  the  like,  should  be  given 
by,  and  to,  the  members  of  the  school,  and,  if  con- 
venient, in  the  schoolroom  itself.  What  this  means  to 
the  school  life  as  a  whole,  will  be  best  appreciated  by 
those  who,  as  adults,  have  been  taught  at  institutions 
where  the  social  life  has  been  well  cared  for.  It  imparts 
a  vitality  and  meaning  of  an  entirely  new  kind  to  the 
whole  machinery.  Not  only  the  interests  but  the  affec- 
tions are  enlisted  on  behalf  of  the  institution  as  a  whole. 
A  fuller  and  more  significant  life  is  realised  in  the  pro- 
cess of  work,  and  the  feeling  of  "  esprit  de  corps  "  is  as 
inevitable  as  it  is  stimulative.  School  life  becomes  a 
member  rather  than  a  misfortune  of  the  whole  life. 

It  is  probably  true  to  say  that,  in  the  interests  of 
pure  education,  far  too  little  is  done  to  systematically 
develop  the  social  graces  in  young  people.  Whilst 
*'  deportment "  was  formerly  almost  the  only  subject 
which  received  any  considerable  attention,  in  many 
schools,  there  now  seems  some  danger  that  it  is  soon 
likely  to  be  the  only  one  which  is  entirely  neglected. 


502  EDUCATION 

Let  it  not  be  forgotten  that  youth  is  the  springtime 
of  life,  when  showers  do  but  minister  to  sunshine,  and 
sunshine  to  showers.  The  early  years  should  be  full  of 
the  buds  and  blossoms  of  pleasure,  and  the  joy  of  living. 
Is  it  not  an  outrage  upon  young  humanity  if  the  morbid- 
ness, disappointment,  and  pessimistic  sourness  of  un- 
happy or  unfortunate  adults,  be  allowed  to  affect  the  few 
brief,  bright  years  of  innocent  happiness  which  ought  to 
be  the  privileged  possession  of  the  child  ? 

If  so,  no  one  who  feels  life  a  burden,  or  thinks  happi- 
ness a  mistake,  is  fit  to  be  an  educator  of  the  young. 
Hardly  anything  can  be  more  adverse  to  a  vigorous  and 
healthy  development  in  young  children  than  the  absence 
of  brightness,  cheerfulness,  and  even  gaiety.  The  inevit- 
able suffering  and  sadness  of  life  are  more  than  enough 
as  discipline  for  the  little  ones.  The  sunshine  of  cheer- 
fulness is  as  necessary  for  the  development  of  the 
mental  and  moral  powers,  as  are  light  and  warmth  for 
that  of  the  physical  nature.  The  educator  must  be  the 
pupil's  sun. 

Complete  harmony  between  the  self  and  the  surround- 
ings, i.e.,  pleasure,  must  bring  about  the  greatest  and 
best  development.  A  writer  has  put  the  matter  very 
happily  in  the  following  passage,  urging  teachers  to 
"  fill  their  rooms  with  perpetual  sunshine.  First,  that 
outward  sunshine  which  includes  abundance  of  light 
and  air,  cheerful  surroundings,  tastefully  decorated 
walls,  and  a  generally  attractive  appearance.  Then, 
more  important  still,  the  inward  sunshine  of  their  own 
good  temper  and  happy,  hopeful  disposition ;  of  their 
habit  of  always  looking  on  the  bright  side  of  everything 


GENERAL  PRINCIPLES  503 

and  saying  the  kindest  thing  possible  of  every  one. 
These  may  seem  small  things,  bat  they  will  not  prove 
so  to  the  young  child.  He  will  find  joy  in  the  genial 
atmosphere  of  his  school,  and  grow  rapidly  in  all  graces 
of  mind  and  sonl  under  the  influence  of  its  light  and 
warmth  "  (Elementary  Education,  Kilburn  Series). 

Those  who  have  realised  the  spirit  of  kindergarten 
teaching  know  the  truth  of  this ;  and  those  who  know 
it  not,  do  not  understand  the  kindergarten. 

Any  means  which  makes  for  pleasure  in  the  educa- 
tional system  as  a  whole,  or  in  any  particular  part  of 
it,  should  be  highly  esteemed,  as  a  means  of  vivifying 
and  furthering  the  work  of  education  ;  and  every  effort 
should  be  made  to  practically  realise  the  advantages  of 
such  powerful  influences. 

The  Principle  of  Inter-relation  and  Inter-dependenoe.-— 
The  very  great  and  fundamental  importance  of  this 
principle  demands  that  something  more  should  be  said 
about  it,  now  that  we  have  reviewed  the  general  out- 
lines of  the  science,  and  have  thus  obtained  a  better 
opportunity  for  understanding  the  conditions  which  it 
must  fulfil.  We  have  constantly  found  it  necessary  to 
draw  attention  to  the  need  of  dependently  relating 
the  different  educational  influences,  and  principles, 
both  as  units  and  with  respect  to  their  details.  Some 
further  applications  of  this  will  now  be  dealt  with,  in 
some  detail. 

As  we.  have  previously  pointed  out,  the  great  aim 
should  always  be  to  secure  such  a  continuity,  coherence, 
system,  and  unity,  amongst  the  educating  influences  as 
will  best  develop  these  elements  in  the  mind  itself. 


504  EDUCATION 

Another  purpose,  which  has  also  been  referred  to,  is 
the  relating  of  knowledge  subjects  in  such  a  way  that  a 
special  interest  in  ariy  particular  subject  shall  act  as  a 
motive  for,  and  stimulus  in,  the  study  of  others.  As 
Dr.  De  Garmo  points  out :  "  every  child  is  sure  to  be 
interested  in  something,  so  that  if  he  can  see  that  other 
things  are  related  to  his  favourite  ones,  life  at  once 
broadens  before  him."  And,  as  appears  from  what  was 
said  about  apperception,  this  inter-connection  is  the 
most  ready,  and  only  true,  means  of  mentally  inter- 
preting our  experiences  in  the  most  significant  way. 

Again,  since  all  knowledge  inevitably  becomes  more 
or  less  directly  and  definitely  related  to  conduct,  the 
systematic  organisation  of  it  will  have  a  very  determin- 
ing influence  upon  the  moral  nature.  Dr.  Rein  says : 
**  Without  such  concentration  of  mental  forces  no  moral 
character  is  conceivable,"  and  Dr.  De  Garmo  urges  that ; 
"  If  knowledge  lies  in  isolated  tracts,  it  has  in  the  first 
place  little  cumulative  effect  upon  the  motives  of  the 
child  ;  and  in  the  second  place,  even  if  each  separate 
tract  should  give  rise  to  its  own  little  round  of  interests 
and  motives,  there  is  small  probability  that  the  resulting 
acts  of  will  would  of  themselves  drop  into  a  co-ordinated 
line  of  consistent  actions." 

Another  important  aim  arises  in  connection  with  the 
principle  of  proportion.  There  must  be  a  limit  to  the 
number  and  the  extent  of  the  knowledge  subjects 
which  are  used  for  educational  purposes,  or  the  pupil 
*^  not  having  time  to  digest  any  subject  thoroughly,  soon 
becomes  a  mere  taster  in  all  learning  "  (Dr.  De  Garmo). 
The  more  zealous  we  are  for  the  highest  success  of 


GEI^ERAL   PRINCIPLES  505 

practical  education,  the  more  necessary  is  it  that  we 
should  take  account  of  this.  As  Dr.  De  Garmo  remarks : 
**  Nothing  appears  more  essentifll  to  our  further  advance, 
than  a  rigid  examination  of  the  curriculum,  that  indis- 
pensable parts  may  be  properly  related,  and  needless 
ones  eliminated." 

The  question  as  to  what  should  be  the  great  central 
subject  from  which  all  the  others  should  be  derived, 
and  to  which  they  should  be  referred,  has  already 
been  discussed;  and  reasons  were  given  for  holding 
that  the  beginnings  of  physical  science  form  the  true 
original  germ  of  our  earliest  knowledge,  and,  therefore, 
must  be  this  central  subject.  Dr.  Eein,  however,  follow- 
ing Ziller,  the  original  exponent  of  the  principle,  takes 
a  different  view,  and  regards  literature  as  the  true 
central  subject. 

He  therefore  develops  education  on  humanistic  lines, 
i.e.,  from  the  point  of  view  of  literary  culture.  The 
following  are  the  considerations  (as  given  by  Dr.  De 
Garmo)  on  which  he  bases  his  selection  : — 

"  I.  By  following  the  order  of  the  national  culture, 
and  presenting  it  in  the  light  of  ethical  judgment,  we 
shall  call  forth  permanent  interest  in  the  developing 
child;  hence,  chronological  progress  from  older  and 
simpler,  to  newer  and  more  complicated  stages  and 
conditions. 

"  2.  As  a  basis  for  this  material  we  must  use  child- 
like classical,  religious,  literary  and  historical  matter. 
*  Periods  which  no  master  has  described,  whose  spirit 
no  poet  has  breathed,  are  of  small  value  for  education  ' 
(Herbart),       Only    classical    presentations  invite  the 


506  EDUCATION 

pupil  to  constant  and  profitable  repetitions ;  they  alone 
famish  nourishment  for  the  interests  and  aspirations 
of  children.  Only  throttgh  these  does  the  past  speak 
in  full  tones  to  the  present. 

"  3.  Only  large,  connected  unities  of  subject-matter 
are  able  to  arouse  and  keep  alive  the  deep  sympathy 
of  the  youthful  mind,  thereby  contributing  to  the  de- 
velopment of  character.  *  Great  moral  energy  is  the 
effect  of  entire  scenes  and  unbroken  thought  masses '  ** 
(Herbart). 

On  this  theory  Dr.  Rein  has  worked  out  a  truly 
admirable  scheme  of  educational  work  for  the  first  eight 
years  of  school  life.  The  following — ^f  rom  Dr.  De  Garmo's 
book  on  **  Herbart " — ^is  the  scheme  for  the  first  year : 

«  8f  <^'     (  ^'  ^^^®  ^^  concentration  )  Drawing,  singing,  number, 
C  2.  Nature-study  (     reading,  and  writing. 

**  I.  Ethical  core  of  concentration ;  Grimm's  Fairy 
Tales.  These  form  the  centre,  or  core,  of  instruction. 
The  other  branches  are  concentrated  about  them ;  and 
by  them  the  remaining  topics  ai'e  largely  determined. 

"2.  Nature  study.  All  the  subjects  that  are  sug- 
gested by  the  fairy  tales,  receiving  a  special  illumina- 
tion from  them  and  thereby  awakening  an  intensified 
interest,  are  first  chosen  for  treatment.  School  life  and 
individual  experience  furnish  much  supplementary 
matter.     (See  list  of  object  lessons  below.) 

*'  3.  Drawing.  For  this  purpose  the  objects  men- 
tioned in  the  fairy  tales,  and  in  the  nature-study  are 
used. 


GENERAL   PRINCIPLES  507 

"  4.  Singing.  The  choice  of  songs  is  determined  by 
the  moods  developed  by  instruction  and  by  school  life. 
The  various  songs  must  express  emotion  at  fitting 
times. 

"  5.  Number  work.  This  is  connected  closely  with 
the  things  that  are  considered  in  the  various  culture 
and*  nature  subjects. 

"6.  Eeading  and  writing.  The  material  is  chosen 
from  the  topics  treated  during  instruction  in  fairy  tales 
and  nature-study." 

The  object  lessons  referred  to  include  thirty-two  topics, 
of  which  brief  outlines  are  given,  as  follows : 

"  I.  Boom.  Pour  walls  (names),  ceiling,  and  floor. 
Protects  from  rain,  wind,  and  cold. 

"  2.  Bed.  We  lie  in  bed  when  tired,  sick-  Soft  and 
warm  in  bed.     We  will  not  be  sluggards. 

"  3.  Clothing.  Names  of  parts  of  clothing.  We 
wear  clothing,  (i)  that  we  may  not  freeze,  (2)  that  we 
need  not  be  ashamed,  (3)  for  adornment,  (4)  for  carry- 
ing things. 

"4.  Food,  (i)  There  is  much  that  we  can  eat.  (2) 
We  eat  many  things  raw,  many  boiled,  roasted,  baked. 
(3)  There  are  foods  from  flour,  flesh,  milk,  fruits,  leaves, 
roots." 

So  the  list  goes  on,  and  includes  all  the  most  familiar 
objects  of  the  garden,  field,  wood,  heavens,  schoolhouse, 
and  the  home  surroundings. 

We  urge  that  instead  of  the  fancied  and  impossible 
experiences  suggested  by  fairy  tales,  the  real  experi- 
ences of  child  life,  expanded  and  crystallised  by  educa- 
tional means,  should  be  used.     Our  objections  to  the 


508  EDUCATION 

use  of  fairy  tales  have  been  set  forth,  and  we  need  only 
add,  that  we  hold  that  they  should  nowadays  be  looked 
upon,  historically,  as  a  kind  of  anthropological  poetry ; 
or,  from  the  literary  standpoint,  as  delightful  examples 
of  poetic  licence,  but  as  the  last  and  most  obscure, 
because  fanciful,  expressions  of  knowledge. 

There  is  another  most  valuable  application  of  the 
principle,  which  seeks  to  co-ordinate  the  different 
grades  of  studies — primary,  secondary,  and  higher — 
with  each  other.  An  extremely  interesting  and 
suggestive  scheme  of  this  character,  by  Dr.  Otto  Prick, 
in  also  given  in  Dr.  De  Garmo's  book  on  '*  Herbart." 

The  general  order  of  subjects  is :  geo^^raphy,  natural 
history,  history,  German  (the  mother  tongue),  Latin, 
religion.  This  is  a  sequence  which  very  largely  corre- 
sponds to  the  views  we  have  contended  for. 

We  will  quote  the  scheme  in  so  far  as  it  deals  with 
geography,  natural  history,  and  German  (the  centre  of 
the  whole). 

"  A. — Primaky  Studies.    Two  Years.    Age,  io  to  12. 
First  Year. 

'*  I.  Geography  (first  semester).  The  typical  geo- 
graphical concepts  illustrated  by  the  home  environ- 
ment. Introduction  to  understanding  of  relief,  and 
the  reading  of  a  map.     General  lessons  upon  the  globe. 

"  (Second  semester.)  Division  of  the  earth  into  land 
and  water.  General  descriptive  view  of  all  the  con- 
tinents 

"2.  Natural  History.     First  introduction  into  sys- 


GENERAL  PRINCIPLES  509 

tematic  observation  of  plant  and  animal  life,  according 
to  chief  types  found  in  the  child's  environment.  (Bio- 
logical home  studies.)  In  summer  the  plants,  in  winter 
the  animals,  are  brought  to  the  front. 

"  Enlivening  of  the  geography  heretofore  presented. 

**  Opening  up  of  the  home  environment.  The  awaken- 
ing and  cultivation  of  the  feeling  for  nature  and  home 
surroundings. 

**  3.  German.  A  national  reading  book,  part  I.  (with 
an  appendix  of  the  local  or  home  environment),  for 
extending  and  deepening  the  impression  and  concepts 
obtained  in  local  geography  and  natural  history.  Pic- 
tures illustrating  local  traditions." 

Second  Yeab. 

"I.  Geography.  Lands.  More  minute  descriptions 
(with  an  emphasis  of  geographical  types). 

"  (First  semester.)  Home  province,  and  state,  and  the 
whole  of  Germany. 

"  (Second  semester.)  The  remainder  of  Europe. 

"2.  Natural  History.  Extension  of  observation  to 
neighbouring  regions  in  order  to  enlarge  the  observa- 
tion of  plant  and  animal  life  according  to  important 
types.     Extension  of  study  to  foreign  lands. 

"  In  summer  and  winter  as  in  first  year. 

"3.  German.  A  national  reading  book,  part  II., 
corresponding  to  part  I.,  but  with  stronger  emphasis 
upon  national  history,  legends,  and  historical  poems 
from  ancieut  and  media9val  German  history.  Charac- 
terisations of  great  historical  personalities  therein  con- 
tained." 


510  EDUCATION 

B. — Secondary  Studies.  Four  Years.  Age,  12 

TO  16. 

Third  Year. 

**  I.  Geography.  Land  divisions.  Extended  descrip- 
tion (with  emphasis  of  types)  of  non-European  countries. 
Especial  study  of  German  Colonies. 

'*  2.  Natural  Science.     Elementary  and  general. 

'*  (First  semester.)  Physical  geography. 

**  (Second  semester.)  Geology  (according  to  the  scope 
and  treatment  of  the  subject  in  the  books  of  Geikie- 
Schmidt). 

**3  German.  The  Franco-Prussian  war  of  1 870-1 
in  a  form  prepared  for  schools.  A  few  of  the  most 
important  war  poems;  then  furnished  with  material 
from  Grecian  history  and  culture,  e.g,^  Geibel,  Schiller 
(King  des  Polykr,  Krainche  des  Ibycus)." 

The  subjects  are  extended  each  year.  In  the  fourth 
year  Greek  is  added,  in  the  fifth  year  physics  is 
introduced,  and  in  the  sixth  year  geography  becomes 
"not  a  subject  to  be  taught,  but  a  principle  to  be 
observed  at  every  opportunity,"  whilst  in  German  the 
following  books  are  taken :  Goethe's  "  Hermann 
und  Dorothea;"  Schiller's  **Wilhelm  Tell,"  *'Jung- 
frau  von  Orleans,"  and  "  Maria  Stuart." 

0. — Higher  Studies.    Age  16-19. 

Seventh  Year. 

**  I  Geography.  Not  a  subject  to  be  taught,  but  a 
principle  to  be  observed  at  every  opportunity. 


GENERAL   PRINCIPLES  511 

"2  Natural  Science.  (First  semester).  Elements 
of  chemistry. 

**  (Second  semester).     Physics. 

"3  German.  (First  semester.)  Niebelnngen  Lied 
(and  Gudrun). 

"  (Second  semester).  Heliand,  Walter  von  der  Vogel- 
weide  (selections — natural  feeling,  knightly  service, 
Kaiser  songs,  Qt)d's  service)." 

In  the  eighth  year  the  outlines  of  mathematical 
geography  are  introduced  under  natural  science,  and 
"  view  of  the  inner  development  of  German  literature," 
under  German.  The  ninth  and  last  year  includes  a 
study  of  the  "conception  and  nature  of  the  cosmos 
('  nature  as  a  whole  moved  and  quickened  by  an  inner 
power '),"  as  a  natural  science  subject,  and  an  "  impres- 
sive gathering  up  of  the  important  fundamental  ideas 
presented  in  the  instruction  in  German,"  as  a  literary 
subject. 

If  what  we  have  said  about  the  principle  of  develop- 
ment be  sound,  it  would  appear  that  the  application  of 
the  principle  of  inter-relation  and  inter-independence 
must  be  mainly  regulated  by  two  great  truths,  viz., 
that  activity  is  necessary  for  experience,  experience  for 
ideas,  and  ideas  for  expressions,  and  also  that  there 
must,  primarily  at  least,  be  progress  from  the  concrete 
to  the  abstract. 

Our  general  scheme  must  therefore  so  order  the 
educative  influences  and  knowledge  subjects,  that  the 
active  powers  are  first  engaged  in  such  a  way  as  to 
provide  the  fullest  and  most  appropriate  experiences 
ior  producing  the  required  ideas.     Next  the  ideas,  as 


512  EDUCATION 

such,  must  be  developed,  and  crystallised  in  verbal 
forms.  This  must  apply  to  the  scheme  as  a  whole  and 
to  each  part,  as  also  must  the  movement  from  the  con- 
crete to  the  abstract. 

A  mode  of  applying  the  principle  on  these  lines  may 
be  illustrated  by  an  example.  Taking  the  home  as  the 
concrete  centre  from  which  knowledge  is  to  be  primarily- 
derived,  because  it  is  the  practical  centre  of  our  life  and 
interests,  we  should  proceed  as  follows. 

1.  Kindergarten. — First  the  child*s  receptivity  and 
imitativfiness  must  be  made  use  of.  The  outlines  of  a 
model  of  a  house  can  be  imitated  by  stick-laying,  and 
the  whole  structure  reproduced  in  wooden  bricks. 
What  we  may  call  its  cubical  outlines  should  be  copied 
in  cork  and  pea  work.  Weaving  and  paper-folding  can 
be  employed  for  making  copies  of  household  articles 
and  ornaments. 

All  these  will,  if  properly  used,  cultivate  the  child's 
powers  of  observation,  and  its  capacity  for  reproductive 
imitation.  Ideas  about  the  house,  as  such,  must  also 
be  obtained,  e,g,,  the  necessity  for  protection  from  the 
weather,  and  how  it  is  secured;  the  functions  of  the 
roof,  windows,  chimney,  etc. ;  the  special  uses  of  the 
separate  rooms,  and  their  appropriate  positions  and 
furnishing ;  and  some  very  simple  notions  about  the 
draining,  ventilation,  and  cleaning  of  the  house.  This 
will  be  informational  rather  than  inferential,  and  ac- 
cording to  interest  and  familiarity,  rather  than  inter- 
connection and  sequence. 

2.  Geography. — Next  there  must  be  an  endeavour  to 
introduce  systematic  information,  as  a  preparation  for 


GENEBAL  PRINCIPLES  513 

systematic  thought,  i,e.,  science.  We  can  now  begin 
to  pass  over  from  the  material  to  the  symbolic,  in  a 
simple  and  obvious  way.  A  clay  model  of  a  house, 
with  its  roof  off,  should  be  made,  and  from  this  the 
idea  of  the  plan  must  be  deduced,  and  then  drawn.  A 
suggestive  way  of  getting  the  concrete  idea  of  the 
meaning  of  the  plan  would  be  to  have  a  wooden 
model  of  the  '* shell"  of  a  house,  and  to  rub  the 
bottom  parts  with  ink,  and  then  press  it  on  a  piece  of 
white  paper. 

When  the  plan  of  the  house  has  been  developed  then 
its  surroundings  should  be  similarly  treated,  the  plan 
(or  map)  being  coloured  so  as  to  distinguish  the  chief 
features.  The  points  of  the  compass  should  be  associ- 
ated with  the  sun's  movements,  and  marked  on  the 
map. 

A  further  study  of  that  which  has  been  thus  dealt 
with  will  introduce  physical  geography.  Commercial 
and  political  geography  can  be  approached  through 
the  local  industries  and  institutions,  the  local  habita- 
tions of  which  should  be  indicated  on  the  model  and 
map. 

3.  Science. — The  flowers  and  trees  which  are  in  the 
garden,  or  near  the  home ;  the  domestic  animals ;  and 
the  warming  and  lighting  of  the  house ;  will  serve  as 
starting  points  for  elementary  ideas  about  botany, 
natural  history,  and  physics,  in  the  form  of  simple 
object  lessons.  Indeed,  all  the  sciences  can  be  thus 
approached  from  the  objects  and  experiences  met  with 
in  or  about  the  home. 

4.  Art. — Art  in  the  wider  sense  of  systematic  work, 

2k 


514  EDUCATION 

or  in  the  narrower  sense  of  systematic  expressions  of 
the  beautiful,  is  directly  connected  with  the  home  life. 
The  diflFerent  trades  which  have  to  do  with  the  domestic 
life,  such  as  those  of  the  butcher,  baker,  bricklayer,  shoe- 
maker, tailor,  and  grocer,  and  the  industries  which  they 
in  turn  depend  upon,  may  all  be  dealt  with.  The  beauty 
of  the  surrounding  scenery  at  the  various  seasons  of 
the  year,  and  of  pictures  representing  it ;  the  beauties 
of  form  in  ornaments  and  articles  of  furniture;  and 
the  grace  and  harmony  of  rhythmic  movement  and 
sound,  are  not  difficult  to  bring  into  prominence,  and 
80  to  arouse  purposeful  thought. 

5.  Reading,  Writing,  and  Arithmetic. — These,  as 
formal  systems,  should  not  be  taken  as  subjects  till 
after  the  foregoing,  since,  as  systems  of  symbols,  they 
have  no  real  meaning,  and  can  have  no  significant 
existence  for  the  individual  until  the  experience,  ideas, 
and  knowledge  which  they  express  are  actually  possessed 
by  him.  It  is  true  that  vocal  and  visual  signs  have 
been  freely  used,  and  must  be  so  used,  in  the  imparting 
of  knowledge.  But  to  use  words  as  convenient  marks 
of  things  and  experiences,  ideas,  and  knowledge,  is 
very  different  from  using  them  as  a  word  system,  i.e., 
as  a  series  of  signs  which  the  learner  must  know  how 
to  spell,  write,  and  connect  according  to  recognised 
forms. 

Beading  in  the  lower  classes  can  be  connected  with 
the  new  words  introduced  by  the  kindergarten  and 
object  lessons ;  indeed,  the  first  reading  lessons  ought 
to  be  built  up  on  the  blackboard  from  the  verbal 
material  used  in  these.     This  will  not  only  serve  to 


GENERAL   PRINCIPLES  515 

impress  the  new  ideas  more  clearly  and  firmly  upon 
the  memory,  but  it  will  make  the  reading  lesson  have 
a  reality  and  purpose  for  the  child  which  nothing  else 
can  give  it; 

Foreign  languages  are  best  learnt  by  thus  directly 
associating  words  .with  things,  and  by  using  the  mother 
tongue  as  a  model  and  a  means  of  transition. 

In  the  higher  classes  reading  can  be  used  to  extend 
the  information  already  gained  about  particular  objects 
and  processes.  But  this  does  not  mean  that  reading, 
as  a  form  of  elocution  and  a  means  of  culture,  should 
be  cultivated  through  such  subject  matter.  These  must 
be  obtained  through  the  best  literature,  which  ought  to 
be  made  to  stimulate,  nourish,  and  form,  the  literary 
tastes. 

The  verbal  accounts  of  lessons  which  are  produced  in 
the  way  suggested  above,  might  very  well  be  given  as 
composition  lessons,  either  reproductively  through 
memory  or  dictation,  or  constructively,  from  a  more  or  less 
full  outline  sketch.  If  these  are  preserved  in  special 
exercise  books,  they  will  form  a  self-made  text-book— 
the  very  best  of  text-books  for  the  beginner. 

Arithmetic  can  be  very  usefully  associated  with  the 
object  lessons.  If  the  teacher  gets  some  accurate 
information  as  to  the  number  of  slates  to  a  square  yard 
of  roofing,  the  number  of  bricks  to  a  square  yard  of 
wall,  the  cost  of  materials,  and  the  like,  a  great  many 
exercises  in  arithmetic  could  be  devised.  There  is 
every  reason  for  thus  making  arithmetic  the  channel 
of  a  great  deal  of  correct  information.  The  higher 
branches  of  mathematics,  such  as  mensuration,  geometry. 


516  EDUCATION 

and  trigonometry,  can  be  developed  in  connection  with 
the  measurements  of  a  house  and  its  surroundings. 

6.  Grammar. — This  must  come  after  reading  and 
writing  are  somewhat  advanced,  inasmuch  sfis  it  has  to 
do  with  the  science  and  art  of  verbal  forms.  Dealing 
with  grammar  in  connection  with  its  concrete  basis — 
experiences  and  thoughts,  the  expressions  for  which  it 
systematically  and  technically  expounds,  and  regulates 
according  to  established  usage — ^the  educator  can  give 
grammar  lessons  implicitly  by  careful  blackboard 
arrangements  of  subject  and  predicate,  etc.  These  he 
can  afterwards  explicitly  expound  from  the  grammatical 
point  of  view.  Such  a  method  has  the  very  great 
advantage  of  demonstrating  and  emphasing  the  relation 
between  the  symbol  and  the  thing  signified,  whilst,  at 
the  same  time,  it  lends  itself  most  helpfully  to  dis- 
tinguishing between  the  study  of  words  and  the  study 
of  the  things  which  they  stand  for. 

7.  History. — Old  houses,  and  old  pictures  of  old 
buildings,  people,  and  costumes,  will  serve  as  points  of 
departure  for  history  lessons.  All  survivals  of  former 
times  invite  comparison  with  their  modem  rivals. 
Old-fashioned  customs  and  observances  both  stimu- 
late and  partly  satisfy  the  curiosity  of  the  intelligent 
observer. 

The  government  of  the  home,  as  compared  with  that 
of  the  school,  and  any  form  of  scholars'  club  or  society, 
will  introduce  the  elements  of  constitutional  history. 
The  study  of  the  forms  of  local  government  should  be 
the  transition  step  to  the  wider  field  of  national  political 
institutions.     The  study  of  forms  of  government  which 


GENERAL  PBINCIPLES  517 

affect  large  areas  will  lead  to  a  fuller  treatment  of 
political  geography. 

Of  course  all  this  must,  in  the  early  stages,  be  of  a 
very  concrete  character — that  is,  it  must  consist  chiefly 
of  systematic  descriptions  of  facts,  and  not  attempts  to 
explain  the  principles  or  philosophical  truths  of  history. 

8.  Morals. — The  home  life  presents  the  best  possible 
opportunity  for  conveying  definite  ideas  about  affec- 
tion, self-sacrifice,  considerateness,  kindness,  generosity, 
justice,  rights,  and  duties.  At  first  the  teaching  should 
be  of  a  concrete  kind,  and  only  in  the  higber  classes 
ought  there  to  be  any  attempt  to  begin  to  form  any- 
thing like  systematic  abstract  ideas  about  such  matters 
— in  other  words,  to  teach  ethics. 

It  must  be  remembered  that  it  is  only  the  beginnings 
of  knowledge  which  are  to  be  thus  derived  from  a  central 
topic.  It  is  as  the  natural,  and  therefore  the  most 
helpful  and  fruitful,  starting  point  in  the  beginnings  of 
knowledge  that  the  greatest  good  can  be  obtained  in 
this  way.  It  is  absolutely  essential  that  the  pupil 
should,  as  soon  as  he  is  able,  take  interest  in,  and  learn 
about,  facts  more  and  more  remote  from  the  home. 
The  development  of  one  subject  from  another  must  be 
elaborated  as  much  as  possible. 

It  must  be  admitted  that  the  considerations  involvf^d 
in  the  drawing  up  of  such  plans  for  educational  develop- 
ment are  of  the  greatest  possible  practical  importance, 
and  that  all  the  resources  of  a  sound  science  of  educa- 
tion— together  with  a  mastery  of,  and  power  in  apply- 
ing, its  principles,  by  a  capable  expert — ^are  needed  for 
the  satisfactory  solution  of  such  fundamental  issues. 


518  EDUCATION 

Whatever  is  achieved  in  this  direction — and  much 
has  already  been  done,  and  still  more  made  possible,  by 
the  great  thinkers  and  writers  on  education — will  put 
the  art  of  education  on  a  scientific  basis,  and  secure  tlie 
greatest  and  the  best  practical  results. 

Some  General  Eemarks. — The  principles  just  discussed 
are  recognised  in  the  following  quotations  from  the 
opinions  of  practical  teachers.  The  principles  of 
collectivism  and  individualism  are  involved  in  these 
words  of  Dr.  Abbott :  "  In  a  school  it  is  necessary  for 
a  class-teacher  to  consult  the  interests  of  the  greatest 
number,  slightly  sacrificing  the  very  dull,  and  still 
more  the  very  clever,  for  the  sake  of  the  commonplace 
majority,  and  endeavouring  to  compensate  the  two 
extremes  by  a  little  extra  attention  out  of  class." 

Mr.  Landon  says :  "  In  order  that  the  instruction 
given  to  a  class  may  be  so  suited  to  every  member  of 
it  that  no  one  is  unduly  pressed,  and  no  one  neglected, 
the  level  of  attainment  and  of  intellectual  power  must 
be  fairly  uniform  throughout."  (The  Principles  and 
Practice  of  Teaching.)  Comenius  advises,  "  that  those 
pupils  only  be  admitted  into  the  same  class  who  are  of 
equal  advancement,  and  that  they  be  admitted  at  the 
same  time  "  (Laurie). 

Dr.  Fitch  points  out  the  dangers  of  too  early  applica- 
tion of  the  principle  of  individualism  in  the  following 
passages :  "  Do  you  not,  in  looking  back  on  your  own 
mental  life,  feel  thankful  that  you  were  forced  to  learn 
things  for  which  you  had  no  special  appetite,  and 
which  a  scientific  analyst  of  your  yet  unformed  character 
and  tastes  might  have  declared  to  be  unsuited  to  you  ? " 


GENERAL   PRINCIPLES  519 

The  Eev.  M.  G.  Glazebrook,  writing  of  specialisation, 
remarks :  "  When  a  boy  of  moderate  ability  reaches  the 
age  of  sixteen  it  is  generally  clear  that  he  has  a  pre- 
ference for  some  one  subject  ....  A  little  more  than 
half  of  the  school  hours  should  be  devoted  to  the 
special  subject,  but  the  rest  should  be  strictly  reserved 
for  supplementary  studies.  These  latter  should  be  so 
planned  as  to  train  different  faculties  without  the  dis- 
traction caused  by  multiplicity  of  subjects  "  (Thirteen 
Essays  on  Education). 

Speaking  of  the  advantages  of  forming  good  habits 
in  children,  Locke  says :  *'  By  this  method  we  shall 
see  whether  what  is  required  of  him  be  adapted  to  his 
capacity,  aAy  way  suited  to  the  child's  natural  genius 
and  constitution  :  for  that  too  must  be  considered  in  a 
right  education." 

In  condensing  Pestalozzi's  ideas  into  educational 
maxims,  Morf  gives  this  as  one  of  them :  "  The  indi- 
viduality of  a  child  is  sacred."  Comenius  has  the 
following  practical  rules,  which  are  clearly  based  on 
collectivism :  "  Let  there  be  only  one  teacher  for  a 
school,  or  at  least  for  a  class.  In  one  subject,  let  there 
be  but  one  author  (i.e.,  let  "  all  be  taught  from  the 
same  books  ").  Let  one  and  the  same  labour  be  ex- 
pended on  the  whole  of  the  pupils  present  (i.e.,  let  '*  all 
the  scholars  ....  do  the  same  thing  at  the  same 
time").  Let  all  disciplines  and  tongues  be  taught 
according  to  one  and  the  same  method  "  (Laurie). 

The  principle  of  proportion  is  set  forth  by  Mr. 
Landon  thus :  "  The  teacher  must  work  with  the  pupil, 
not  for  him.     Take  his  hand,  beguile  the  tediousness 


520  EDUCATION 

of  the  way,  allow  proper  rest,  and  do  not  hurry  or 
overstrain  him;  but  see  that  he  walks,  do  not  carry 
him."  Nicole  (15th  century)  one  of  the  Port-Eoyalists 
writes :  "  The  greatest  minds  have  but  a  limited  range 
of  intelligence.  In  all  of  them  there  are  regions  of 
twilight  and  shadow ;  but  the  intelligence  of  the  child 
is  almost  wholly  pervaded  by  shadows;  he  catches 
glimpses  of  but  few  rays  of  light  So  everything 
depends  on  managing  these  rays,  on  increasing  them, 
and  on  exposing  to  them  whatever  we  wish  to  have 
the  child  comprehend  "  (Compayr^). 

Comenius  suggests  the  principle  of  proportion  in  the 
following  maxim;  "Nature  preserves,  between  root 
and  branches,  a  true  proportion  in  respect  of  quantity 
and  quality"  (Laurie).  And  Quintilian  shrewdly 
remarks :  "  We  can  scarcely  believe  how  progress  in 
reading  is  retarded  by  attempting  to  go  too  fast" 

That  we  ought  not  to  press  the  principle  of  analysis 
and  synthesis  too  far  is  implied  by  Canon  Daniel  when 
he  says :  '*  There  are  many  facts  which  admit  of  uo 
explanation;  there  are  others  which,  if  taught  to 
children  at  all,  must  be  received  by  them,  at  first,  on 
authority."  Of  the  need  for  alternation  of  work  and 
play,  the  same  writer  remarks:  *'We  are  too  apt  to 
look  upon  recreation  as  a  mere  concession  to  the. weak- 
ness of  children.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  it  is  as  much  a 
part  of  education  as  school  work  is  .  .  •  .  If  work  and 
play  be  well  proportioned,  each  will  be  a  recreation  to 
the  other."  And  the  limits  of  the  principle  of -nourish- 
ment are  indicated  by  him  in  these  words :  "  Teachers 
will   do   well   to   remember  that  it   is   expedient   for 


GENERAL   PMNCIPLES  521 

children  to  leave  off  a  mental,  as  a  bodily  meal,  with 
an  appetite,  and  that  in  this,  as  in  many  other  matters, 
^  the  half  is  more  than  the  whole/  " 

Plato  has  e:?cpressed  the  influence  of  the  environment 
in  these  words :  "  Let  our  artists  be  rather  those  who 
are  gifted  to  discern  the  true  nature  of  the  beautiful 
and  graceful ;  then  will  our  youth  dwell  in  a  land  of 
health,  amid  fair  sights  and  sounds,  and  receive  the 
good  in  everything ;  and  beauty,  the  effluence  of  fair 
works,  shall  flow  into  the  eye  and  ear,  like  a  health- 
giving  breeze  from  a  purer  region,  and  insensibly  draw 
the  soul  from  earliest  years  into  likeness  and  sympathy 
with  the  beauty  of  reason." 

We  should  again  remind  ourselves  that  the  foregoing 
discussions  are  but  outlines  of  the  matters  with  which 
they  deal  Our  aim  has  been  rather  to  indicate  the 
science  and  its  most  important  constituent  units  than 
to  attempt  even  a  fairly  full  treatment  of  any  one  item. 
The  relations  of  education  to  ethics,  logic,  and  physiology 
have  been  deliberately  excluded,  except  in  so  far  as  inci- 
dental references  were  demanded  by  the  topic  in  hand. 

It  must  be  remembered  that  education  is  the  science, 
and  teaching  the  art.  One  may  be  a  good  teacher  and 
a  poor  educationist,  or  a  good  educationist  and  a  poor 
teacher.  He  who  would  have  true  excellence  in  either 
must  be  sound  in  both. 

Education,  like  all  other  sciences,  is  progressive. 
We  are  constantly  obtaining  more  profound,  extensive, 
and  accurate  knowledge  about  human  beings  in  par- 
ticular, and  also  about  things  in  general.  There  is, 
therefore,  always  the  occasion  and  need  for  investigat- 


522  EDUCATION 

ing  the  edacational  significance  of  new  ideas.  This 
must  ever  be  so,  for  the  activities  of  the  universe  are 
constantly  producing  fresh  modifications  of  the  total 
complex.  Science  knows  nothing  of  finality,  except 
as  annihilation,  and  it  knows  nothing  of  annihilation. 


APPENDIX 


The  following  short  list  of  books  is  offered  as  a  suggestion 
lor  further  reading.  It  is  recommended  that  the  volumes  be 
read  in  the  order  in  which  they  are  arranged. 

Lectures  on  Teaching.    Part  I.    Compayre.    Isbister,  6s. 

The  Teacher's  Handbook  of  Psychology.     Sully. 
Longmans,  6s. 

Apperception.     Lange.     Isbister,  3s.  6d. 

The  Essentials  of  Method.    De  Garmo.    Isbister,  2s.  6d. 

Habit  in  Education.     Eadestock.     Isbister,  2s.  6d. 

Outlines  of  Pedagogics.     Eein.     Sonnenschein,  3s. 

Introduction    to    Herbart's    Science    and   Practice   of 
Education.     Felkin.     Sonnenschein^  4s.  6d. 

The   Science  of  Education.     Hekbart.     Sonnenschein, 
4s.  6d. 

Herbart.     De  Garmo.     Heinemann^  5s. 

Elements  of  General  Method.     McMurry.     Kellogg  & 
Co.,  New  York,  75c. 

Education.     Herbert  Spencer.     WUliarns  &  Norgate, 
2s.  6d. 

Education  as  a  Science.     Chapters  1-7-     Bain.     Kegan 
Paul,  5s. 


J  24  APPENDIX 

Essays  on  Edacational  Reformers.     Quick.     Longmaris^ 
3s.  6d. 

The  Histofy  of  Pedagogy.   Compayr]6.   SonnenscheiUy  6s. 

Institutes  of  Education.     S.  S.  Laurie.     Thin,  Ss. 

Comenius.     S.  S.  Laurie.     Clay  &  Sons,  3s.  6d. 

The  Child  and  Child  Nature.     BtJLOW.     Sonnenschein^ 
Ss. 

The   Student's  ProebeL     Parts  L  and  IE.     Herford. 
IsUster,  2s.  6d.  each. 

The  Life  of  Pestalozzi.     De  Guimps.     &onn^nschein,  68. 

fimile.     Rousseau.    Edward  Arnold,  68. 

Education  and  Heredity.    Guyau.     Walter  Scott,  3s.  6d. 

Education    from    a    National    Standpoint.     Fouill^. 
Edvxird  Arnold,  7s.  6d. 

The  Philosophy  of  Education.     Rosenkranz.     Edward 
Arnold,  6s. 

Method  in  Education.     Rosmini.     Isbister,  5s. 

Levana.     Richter.     Sonnenschein,  3s. 

First  Three  Years  of  Childhood.    Perez.    Sonnenschein, 
4s.  6d. 

The  Senses  and  the  Will.   Preyer.   Edward  Arnold,  68. 

The  Development  of  the  Litellect.     Preyer.     Edvxird 
Arnold,  6s. 

Story  of  Primitive  Man.     Clodd.     Newnes,  Is. 

Primitive  Culture.     2  Volumes.    Tylor.     Murray,  21s. 

Folk-lore  for  Everybody.     Cox.    NuU,  3s.  6d. 


INDEX 


Abbott,  Dr.  :  on  repetition  and 
preparation,  152 
on  words  and  ideas,  422 
on  difficulties  in  teaching, 

432 
on  gradation  in  teaching, 

435 
on  need  of  relaxation,  492 
on  individual  teaching,  618 
Abstract,  the  :  in  education,  217 
its  dependence  on  the  con- 
crete, 218 
Action :  nature  springs  of,  127 
development  of,  184 

see  principle  of  doing,  224 
Adjustment :  need  of  time  for, 
120 
and  habit,  135 
Analysis  :  nature  of,  336 

in  progress  from  indefinite 
to  definite,  408 
Analysis  and  synthesis :  principle 

of,  335 
Animism  :  in  child  and  race,  406 
Apperception  :  what  it  involves, 
307 
definition  of,  309 
how  determined,  310 
Apperceptive  group  :  what  it  is, 
310 
domination  of  an,  311 
forming  of,  332 
Aristotle  :  on  education,  39 
on  leisure,  236 
on  overtraioing,  267 
on  development,  271 


Arnold,  Matthew :  on  culture, 490 
Ascham,  Roger :  on  preparation, 

151 
Assimilation :   and   discrimina- 
tion, growth  of,  106 

need  of  time  for,  120 

what  it  involves,  291 

deepest  forms  of,  336 

conditions  of,  438 
Association  :  what  it  is,  71 

what  the  result  of,  71 

and  attention,  73 

conditions  for  force  of,  73 

an  element  of  knowing,  73 

of  ideas,  278 
Attention  :  nature  of,  64 

as  mental  digestion,  65 

kinds  of,  65 

pre-adjustment  of,  66 

and  association,  73 

its  functions,  74 

and  assimilation.  307 
Average,  the :  and  the  normal, 
474 

B 

Baby,  Thb:  some  characteristics 

of,  160,  204,  277,  282,  345 
Bain,  Dr. :  on  interest  iu  educa 
tion,  130 

on  progress  from  known  to 

unknown,  205 
on  learning,  228 
on  juxtaposition,  338 
on  self-effort  in  education, 

345 
on  value  of  information,  413 


526 


INDEX 


Basedow :  on    the  concrete    in 

teaching,  272 
Bauer  :  on  education,  40 
Belief :  a  condition  of  willing,  84 
Books  :  their  function  in  educa- 
tion, 247,  251,  422 
Bribery  :  in  education,  240,  245 
BufEon:  on  the  hand  and  reason, 
235 

C 

Chad  WICK,  E.,  Mr.:  on  hours  of 

study  for  children,  94 
Character :  what  it  is,  86 
and  self-activity,  137 
Child  :  some  characteristics  of, 
60,  78,  163,  172,  203,  289,  264, 
282,  323,  343,  482 
Child-study  :  some  remarks  on, 

478 
Choice  :  a  form  of  willing,  84 
Class-teaching :  economy  of,  468, 
471 
limits  of,  468 
Clearness  :  in  education,  429 
Co-education :  remarks  on,  466 
Cognition :  immediate,  296 
Cofiectivism  :  principle  of,  463 
its  basis,  467 
how  realised,  469 
effects  of,  471 
Umits  of,  473 
Comenius  :  on  education,  40 
on  connection  of  subjects, 

108 
on  repetition,  151 
on  simplicity,  208,  273 
on  order  in  teaching,  212 
some  maxims  of,  224 
on  play,  236 
on    pleasure    and    pain    in 

education,  255 
on  progress  from  general  to 

individual,  400 
on  pansopbism,  415 
on  words  and  things,  437 
on  class  uniformity,  518 
on  oollective  teaching,  518 


Comenius :  on  proportion  in  edu 

cation.  520 
Communication  :    in  education, 
1     34 

as  a  source  of  knowledge, 
374 

dangers  of,  375 
Compayre  :  on  education,  19 

on  history  of  education,  31 
Concepts :  285 

development  of,  300 

association  of,  302,  305 

formation  of,  302 

definition  of,  304 

kinds  of,  323 

how  to  evolve.  324 

value  of  process  in,  827 
Concrete,    the :    first  influences 
child,  104 

ideas  from,  104 

as  mental  food,  108 

relation  to  abstract,  218 
Consciousness  :  margin  of,  71 
Continuum :  what  it  is,  289 
Control :  kinds  of,  238 

must  allow  freedom,  242 

through  rewards,  244 

through  sugerestion,  247 

dangers  of,  248 
Cram  :  nature  and  definition  of, . 

359 
Crichton-Browne,     Sir  J.- :    on 
education    without   pressure, 

493 
Culture  value :  remarks  on,  107 

subjects    which  involve  it, 
113 

and  interest,  129 

not  to  be  neglected,  415 
Curriculum:   how  far  common, 
469 

number  and  kind  of  subjects 
in,  470 

D 

Danibl,  Evan,  Canon :  on  exer- 
cise and  pleasure,  152 
on  pain  in  education,  274 


INDEX 


527 


Daniel,  Evan,  Canon :  on  use  of 
the  senses,  328 

on    authority    in   teaching, 
520 

on  mental  surfeit,  520 
Development :  what  it  is,  89,  202 

and  knowledge,  100 

what  first  influenced  by,  100 

of  knowledge,  105 

and  growth,  106 

of  assimilation  and  discrimi- 
nation, 106 

and  self-activity,  138 

general  nature  of,  153,  156 

predominance  in,  154 

stages  of,  155 

differences  in,  155 

in  race  and  individual,  157 

individual  elements  of,  159 

of  feeling,  160 

of  knowing,  164,  172 

of  wilUng,  165,  171,  179 

and  environment,  178 

of  action,  184 

in  the  race,  196 

similar  in  wholes  and  parts, 
197 

when    practically    perfect, 
199 

of  thought,  198 

our  knowledge  of,  199 

•involves  decay,  200 

as  basis  of  educational  prin- 
ciples, 201 

of  ideas,  275,  318 

as  gradation,  427 

principle  of,  201,  322,  392 
Deduction  :  process  of,  189,  305 

relation  to  induction,  190 

as  criticism,  418 
De  Garmo,  Dr. :  on  progress  from 
individual   to  general   ideas, 
322 

on  law  of  successive  clear- 
ness, 429 

on  language  and  thought, 
434 

on  gradation  in  education, 
435 


De  Garmo,  Dr.:    on  concentra- 
tion and  relation,  504 
Deliberation :  a  form  of  willing, 

83 
Desire :  an  element  of  willing,  84 
Determinants :  of  mental  growth 
and  development,  438 

general,  438 

kinds  of,  440 

how  to  be  used,  443 

in  character,  444 

in  race,  445 

in  self,  448 

in  experience,  452 

in  environment,  458 

in  stimuli,  459 
Difference :  in  men,  461 

its  importance,  463 

its  universality,  448 
Difficulty:  what  it  consists  in, 
207 

its   function  in   education, 
432 
Discipline  value :  what  it  is,  107 

and  exercise,  109 

results  of.  111. 

and  interest,  128 

in  information,  414 
Discovery :  and  self-activity,  141 

its  function    in  education, 
339 
Discrimination  :  growth  of,  106 

need  of  time  for,  120 

of  things,  278 

and  assimilation,  291 

is  fundamental,  336 

a  condition  of  knowledge, 
381 
Doing :  principle  of,  224 

perversion  of,  227 


E 

Edgewobth,  Miss :  on  too  much 
novelty,  131 

Education:  origin  and  develop- 
ment of,  1 
tradition  in,  2 


528 


INDEX 


Education :  Babylonian,  Chinese, 
and  Hindu,  6 

scope  of.  9 

domestic,  10 

professional,  12 

liberal.  13 

Babylonian,  Egyptian,  Chi- 
nese, 13 

necessity  for,  15 

what  it  is  not,  18 

what  it  is,  19 

definition  of,  20 

usual  time  for,  22 

of  youth  and  adult,  23 

Talae  of  history  of,  25,  31 

as  a  derived  science,  26 

function  of,  32 

and  progress  of  the  race,  32 

through  truth  rather  thau 
error,  35 

and  intercourse,  34 

aim  of,  37 

ends  of,  38,  41 

and  religion,  41 

and  social  life,  113,  116 

physical,  228 

always  progressive,  521. 
Educational  values:  their  nature, 
107 

their  kinds,  108 

their  functions,  117 
Educationist  an  :  what  is  meant 
by,  481 

not  necessarily  a  teacher, 
500 
Educator,  the :  nature  as,  86 

aim  of,  37 

as  stimulator,  91 

as  selector,  127 

as  controller,  240 
Element :  what  it  is,  55 

meaning    of    fundamental, 
149 
Emotion  :  what  it  is,  58 

definition  and  examples  of, 
59 
Emulation:  in    education,   251, 

472 
Encyclopsedism:  in  education,  415 


Environment:  influence  of,  104 
452 
physical,  453 
social,  455 
ratiozial,  457 
Equation,  the  personal :  disconnt 

o%  in  thought,  121 
Erasmus:  on  pleasure  in  learning, 
150 
on  nourishment,  150 
Euclid:  its  value  in  education, 

110 
Exercise :  necessity  of,  109 
Experience :  in  child,  61 

unpleasant,   inevitable,   97, 

256 
the  basis  of  knowledge,  396 
and  development,  452 


Fairy  Tales  :  in  education,  403 
dangers  of,  403,  406,  408 
aim  and  period  of,  405 
their  value,  406 
right  materials  for,  407 

Feeling :  example  of,  45 
nature  of,  55 
not  definable,  55 
kinds  of,  56 

egoistic  and  altruistic,  60 
a  guide  to  action,  61 
expanded  by  knowledge.  61 
as  based  on  judgment,  62 
and  sympathy,  62 
as  motive,  83 
not  to  be  too  uniform,  96 
assimilation  of,  97 
can  be  aroused,  98 
and  iAterest,  130 
development   of,    160,   1»0, 
193 

Fitch,  Dr. :  on  self- tuition,  152 
on  value  of  information,  433 
on  dangers  of  specialisation, 
518 

Fowler,  Dr. :  on  crucial  experi- 
ments, 396 


INDEX 


529 


Freedom :  in  education,  237    . 
Freeman,  Professor :  on  need  of 

meaning  for  words,  434 
Frdebel :  on  education,  140 

the  spirit  and  method  of  his 

kindergarten,  105 
on  the  importance  of  action, 

225 
on  child's  self -efforts,  345 
Frick,  Otto,  Dr. :  a  scheme  of  in- 
struction, 508 


G 

Gabvb  :  on  education,  39 
Generalisation  :  in  children,  167 

rational,  187,  192 
Geography :  educational  order  in, 

396 
Glazebrook,    M.    G.,    Rev.  :    on 

specialisation,  519 
Goetze,  Dr.  :  on  doing  and  ki  ow- 
ing, 233 
Gradation  :  in  education,  207 
principle  of :  425 
involved  in  other  principles, 

427,  431 
important  points  of,  428 
Grammar  :  educational  order  in, 

396 
Gr^ard,  M.  :  on  the  concrete  in 

education,  216 
Growth :  what  is  meant  by,  89 


Habit  :  what  it  is,  85 

as  mental  economy,  85 
as  perfect  mental  develop- 
ment, 132 
as  register  of  development, 

133 
and  power,  133 
how  formed,  133 
illustration  of,  135 
function  of,  136 
and  self-activity,  138 


Habituation,  principle  of :  132 
how  realised,  133 
illustration  of,  135 
its  application,  137 
Herbart :  on  interest,  123 
on  control,  239 
on   relation   of  teacher   to 

pupU,  242,  247,  250 
on  growth  of  self-depend- 
ence, 254 
on  collective  education,  473 
on  individual  education,  487 
on  relation  of  individual  to 
collective  education,  494 
Heredity  :  in  body  and  mind,  447 
and  individuality,  450 
dangers  of,  451 
Hertel,    Dr. :    on    relaxation  in 

education,  492 
Heydenrich  :  on  education,  39 
I^istory :  educational  order  in, 

397 
Hoffding,  Dr. :  on  distinctness  of 
ideas,  380 

on  individuality,  449 
Huxley, Professor:  on  information 
and  education,  433 
on  culture,  490 
on    understanding    Shake- 
speare, 490 
on  mental  relaxation,  491 


Ideals  :  in  education,  140,  252 
Ideas  :  development  of,  275,  320 
beginnings  of.  277 
practical,  279 
abstract  or  rational,  280,  32 
elements  of,  284,  333 
of  space,  293 
and  attention,  307 
groups  of,  310 
association  of,  310 
and  language,  312,  358 
relation  of  elements  of,  318 
concrete  general,  329, 
first,  396 

2l 


530 


INDEX 


Illustration  (examples) : 

caution  as  to  use  of,  149 
of  primitive  education,  3 
of     development      of    art 

through  science,  9 
of  mental  elements,  45 
of  how  to  study  mind,  52 
of  obliviscence,  69 
of  sub-consciousness,  70 
of  association,  72 
of    law  of   increasing  and 

diminishing  returns,  92 
of  principle  of  inter-depen- 
dence and  inter-relation, 
105 
of  utility  value,  116 
of  principle  of  preparation, 

120 
of  too  much  novelty,  131 
of  growth  of  habit,  135 
of  neglect   of  principle  of 

self-activity,  139 
of  child's  knowledge,    169, 

176,  191 
of  progress  from  known  to 

unknown,  203,  205,  394 
of  progress  from  simple  to 

complex,  209,  396 
of  progress  from   concrete 

to  abstract,  219,  324 
of    growth    in    self-depen- 
dence, 252 
of  percept  elements,  298 
of  concept  elements,  303 
of  apperception,  307 
of  progress  from  particular 

to  general,  330 
of     child's     inventiveness, 
and  how  to  encourage  it, 
341 
of  principle  of  analysis  and 

synthesis,  348 
of  progress  in  verbal  sym- 
bolism, 356 
of  intuitions,  371 
of  ambiguity  of  words,  378 
of    growth    of    knowledge, 

383 
of  distinct  ideas,  388 


Illustration  (examples) : 

of  concrete  deductive  rea- 
soning, 418 
of  inductive  reasoning,  27, 

420 
of  how  to  influence  a  par- 
ticular form  of  develop- 
ment, 443 
of  individuality,  449 
of  influence  of  environment, 
458 
Images :  association  of,  279 

generic,  279 
Imagination  :   in  children,  166, 
169 
in  young  people,  186 
Immediateness :  in  knowledge, 

372 
Imitation :  in  children,  171 

development  of,  185 
Impulse :  a  form  of  willing,  84 
Individual,  the :  and  socl^  life, 

114 
Individualism  :  principle  of,  475 
relation  to  collectivism,  476, 

485 
not  to  be  exaggerated,  494 
Individuality  :  a  mystery,  449 
and  heredity,  450 
how  developed,  450 
over-development  of,  451 
and  racial  progress,  475 
and  general  conditions,  476 
not  easily  known,  478 
nature  and  value  of,  478, 

483,  485 
when  asserted,  487 
not  to  be  exaggerated,  488 
Induction  :  process  of,  27,  187 
relation  to  deduction,  190 
as  criticism,  419 
Infant :  {see  baby). 
Influences  :  classes  of,  142,  221 

function  of  in  education,  410 
Information :  its  value,  413 
culture  value  in,  415 
principle  of,  409 
Institutions  for  teaching  adults : 
their- functions,  416 


INDEX 


531 


Instmction :  primitive,  2 

and  education,  18,  21 
Interest :  what  it  is,  82 

kinds  of,  82,  126 

conditions  for,  83,  128 

relation   to  knowledge  and 
sympathy,  125 

native  to  man,  127 

is  self-satisfying,  129 

and  development  of  know- 
ing, and  feeling,  130 

necessity  of,  131 

elements  of,  132 

and  self -activity,  138 

principle  of,  122 

its  relation  to  willing,  122 

some  effects  of,  123 
Inter-relation  :  of  principles ,  145 

and  inter-dependence,  prin  - 
cipleof:  100,503. 

its  importance,  104,  517 

Froebel's  idea  of,  105 

example  of,  205 

and  interest,  504 

and  conduct,  504 

schemes  to  realise,  505 

function  of,  611 
Introspection,  53 
Intuition :  what  it  is,  294,  369 

of  things,  294 

elements  of,  294 

definition  of,  370 

classes  of,  370 
Invention  :  in  education,  340 


Jacotot  :   his   great  principle, 

269,  272 
Jean  Paul :  on  child's  knowledge, 

204 
Jesuits :  on  repetition,  151 


Kant  :  on  self-activity,  139 


Kindergarten :    its    spirit    and 

method,  105,  436 
Knowledge :  how  given,  99 

and  development,  100 

and  interest,  125 

when  most  effective,  144 

what  it  is,  275,  301 

elements  of,  306 

development  and  sources  of, 
368 

stages  of,  380 

a  unit  of,  392 

first  units  of,  396 
Knowing  :  example  of,  46 

nature  of,  63 

development   of,    164,    172, 
186 

in  children,  169 

and     bodily     growth,    177, 
193 

scientific  form  of,  186 


Landon,   Mr.  :     on   class  uni- 
formity, 518 
on  co-operation  of  teacher 
and  pupil,  519 
Lange,    Karl,    Dr.  :    on  child's 
knowledge,  204 
on  activity  and  knowledge, 

232 
on  figures  of  speech,  363 
on  influence  of  environment, 

455 
on  nationality  in  education, 

464 
on  individuality  in   educa- 
tion, 488 
Language :    and  thought,   191, 
314,  320 
probable  origin  of,  312 
development  of,  312 
necessity  of,  313 
as  mental  algebra,  314 
economy  of,  316 
dangers  of,  316,  353 
aid  to  progress  of  ideas,  334 


532 


INDEX 


Langaaf^e  :    learning  a  foreign, 
352 
racial  development  in,  954 
how    to  educate  child    in, 

356 
gesture,  362 
contraction  of,  362 
cannot  form  ideas,  363 
and   principle  of   pleasure, 

364 
a  means  of  criticism,  417 
need  of  gradation  in,  422 
Latin  :  former  idea  of  its  value, 
28 
present  idea  of  its  value,  413 
I^aurie,  S.  S.,  Professor :  on  de- 
velopment, 202 
on  analysis  and  synthesis, 

847 
on  encyclopsedism,  416 
Law  of  increasing  and  diminish- 
ing returns:  in  education, 
91 
Lazarus  :  on  invention  by  chil- 
dren, 342 
Learning :  not  a  passive  process, 

225 
Leibnitz :    on    obscure  notions, 
385 
on    confused   and    distinct 

knowledge,  389 
on     adequate     knowledge, 
391 
Leisure  :  its  value  in  education, 

235 
Lindner :  on  intuitions,  371,  373 

on  mental  clearness,  380 
Localisation  :  of  percepts,  293 
Locke  :  on  habit,  134,  152 

on  educating  and  informing, 

414 
on  individuality  in  educa- 
tion, 519 
Logic:    in    education,  417   {see 
also  deduction  and  induction) 
Ly ttleton,  E.,  Hon.  Rev. :  on  dis- 
covery in  education,  366 


M 

Man,  primitive:  his  nature  and 

development,  196 
Maxims  of  education  :  as  to  self- 
activity,  137 
from  the  known  to  the  un- 
known, 202,  393 
from  the  simple  to  the  com- 
plex, 207.  395 
from  the  concrete  to    the 

abstract,  212,  322, 393 
from  the  particular  to  the 

genera],  328,  399 
from  the  indefinite  to  the 
definite,  401 
McMurry,  C.A.,  Dr.:  on  vigour 
of  thought  in  education,  &1 
on  encyclopasdism,  415 
Memory :  what  it  is,  67,  71,  119 
kinds  of,  67 
as  recollection,  68 
and  repetition,  69 
growth  and  decay  of,  69 
its  development,  119 
higher  form  of ,  310 
Metaphysics :    what   it   is,   61, 

192 
Method :  the  inductive,  27 
of  practical  education 
ignored,  88 
MiaJl,  L.  C,  Professor  :  on  help- 
lessness, 139 
on*  self -effort  in  education, 

365 
on  simplicity  in  education, 
427 
Mind  :  what  it  is,  42,  48 
three  elements  of,  45 
growth  of,  49 
activities  of,  50 
definition  of,  52 
how  to  study  it,  52 
on  active  organism,  64,  75 
over-exhaustion  of,  92 
nourishment  of,  95 
development  of,  101 
highest  type  of,  112 
relation  of  its  powers,  311 


INDEX 


533 


Montaigne:  on    early  scholars, 

28 
Motive  :  a  condition  of  willing, 

81 
and  feeliog,  83 


N 

Nationality:  in  education,  464 
Nature  :  as  educator,  36 

as    educational  stimulator, 
90 
Normal,  the  :  what  it  is,  87 

and  average,  474 
Nourishment :    its  elements    of 
value,  107 
in  what  subjects  small,  110 
and  interest,  130 
what  it  is,  and  how  received, 

439 
principle    of,    what    it    in- 
volves, 94 
Novelty  :  the  need  of,  118 

emphasised  for  the  young, 
131 


Object:    physical,   analysis  of 

idea  of,  294 
Obliviscence :  what  it  is,  68 
Over-elaboration :  danger  of  in 

education,  266 
Owen,  Isambard,  Dr.:  on  doing 

and  knowing,  234 
on  vague  ideas,  385 


Page,    Mr. :    on    self-eflEort    ift 

education,  344 
Pain :  an  element  of  feeling,  57 
accumulation  of,  58 
function  of,  266 
nature  of,  258 

when  necessary  in  education , 
259 


Pain  :  forms  of,  262,  266 
how  to  use  it,  263 
principle  of,  256 
Pansophism  :  in  education,  415 
Passion  :  what  it  is,  59 
Perez,  M. :  on  child  and  similarity, 

463 
Percept:  what  it  is,  284,  290 
the  elements  of,  291 
definition  of,  297 
and  inferences,  297 
an  individual  thing,  328 
Pestalozzi :  on  education,  40 
on  pain  in  education,  274 
on  development,  324 
on     circle    of    knowledge, 

399 
on  progress  from  individual 

to  general  ideas,  400 
on  individuality,  519 
Philosophy  :  what  it  is,  51,  192 
Plato  :  on  education,  39 
on  development,  157 
on  invention  in  education, 

364 
on  influence  of  environment^ 
521 
Play :  its  function  in  education, 

491 
Pleasure  :  an  element  of  feeling, 
57 
accumulation  and  effects  of, 

58 
excess  of,  98 
relation  to  feeling,  knowing, 

and  willing,  100 
principle  of  :  97,  496,  499 
and  principle  of  doing,  230, 

497 
and  principle  of  symbolism, 

364 
and  culture  value,  498 
and  social  life,  500 
Plutarch  :  on  education,  40 
Preparation:  principle  of,  119 
Priest,  the  :  as  teacher,  3 
Presentation :  definition  of,  289 
how  interpreted,  102,  117 
described,  55,  284 


534 


INDEX 


Presentation:  in  tensity  of,  286 
kinds  of,  289 
continuum,  289 
an  individual  thing,  328 
Principles :  discovered  and  estab- 
lished in  practice,  147 
Proof  :  nature  of,  188 
Progress:  in  self-dependence,  252 
in  child's  ideas,  381  {also  see 
development) 
Proportion  :  in  education,  269 
in  educational  values,  490 
in  information,  491 
of  collective  and  individual 

elements,  493 
principle  of :  489 
applied  to  other  principles, 
495 
Psychologv  :  assumptions  of,  42, 
48 

a  natural  science,  43 
definition  of,  51 


Q 

Quick,  Mb.  :  on  use  of  words  in 
schools,  360 

on  words  and  ideas,  366 
Quintillian  :  on  education,  40 

on  interest,  151 

on  making  haste  slowly,  520 


R 

Ratke:    on    inter-relation    of 
knowledge,  151 

Beading:  educational  order  in, 
398 

Reason  :  the  practical,  299 

Reasoning :  what  it  is,  75 

perceptual,  299  {see  deduc- 
tion and  induction) 

Recollection  :  what  it  is,  6# 

Recreation  :  its  value  in  educa- 
tion, 235 

Reflection  :   a  source  of  know- 
ledge, 374 


Rein,  Dr. :   on   govemment   of 
children,  239 
on  nationality  in  education, 

4fi5 
on  concentration  and  con- 
duct, 504 
his  basis  and  scheme  of  in- 
struction, 505 
Repetition:  mental  effects  of,  117 
need  of  novelty  in,  1 18 
and  association,  1 19 
its  importance,  119 
principle  of,  117 
Responsibility:  in  education,  439 
Representation :  what  it  is,  68 

relation  to  presentation,  117 
Resolution:  a  form  of  willing,  85 
Restraint :  in  education,  237 
Rousseau :  on  infancy,  202 

on  education  of  senses,  213, 

215 
on  self -development,  351 
on  child's  use  of  words,  354 
on  the  gain  of  losing  time, 

426 
on  ideas  and  symbols,  437 
on  what  it  is  best  to  know, 
491 


Self,  the :  and  interest,  124 

realisation  of  ideal,  145 

as  its  own  determinant,  458 

as  its  own  stimulus,  459 
Self -activity :  connection    with 
interest  and  habit,  137 

results  of  neglect  of,  139 

and  willing,  140 

and  discovery,  141 

necessary  to  knowledge,  232 

principle  of,  137 
Self -consciousness :  development 

of,  190 
Self-control :  through  externals, 
238 

through  ideals,  252 
Self-dependence :  its  value,  249 

growth  of,  252 


INDEX 


535 


Self -development :  350 

Seneca :  on  education,  39 

Sensation  :  a  presentation,  53 

description  of,  54 

intensity  of,  286 

extensity  of,  293 

Senses  :  education  of,  212 

as  sources  of  knowledge,  225 
training  of,  228 
Sentiments :  nature  of,  63 
development  of,  193 
as  means  of    control,     242, 
251 
Sex  :  in  education,  466 
Schmidt,  Earl :  on  education,  39 
School  :  early  form  of,  3 
Schoolcraft,   H.  R.  :  on    Indian 

education,  3 
'  **  School  Field  Magazine  "  :  some 

contents  of,  342 
Schoolroom  :  need  of,  06 
the  world  in,  34,  101 
Schiller  :  on  self-activity,  232 
Sciences  :  from  the  arts,  7 

earliest  forms  of  knowledge, 

104 
value  in  education,  110,  216 
Sidgwick,  A. ,  Mr.  :  on  doing,  in 

education,  273 
Similarity :   of    mental  powers, 
445 

.  in  racial  qualities,  445 
in  groups  for  education,  446 
its  universality,  448 
essential  to  knowledge,  448 
nature  of,  448 
in  men,  461 

is  of  most  importance,  463 
educational  significance  of, 
463 
Simple,  the  :   in  education,  207, 

395 
Space  :  the  idea  of,  293 
Specialisation :  is  not  individual- 
isation,  473 
its  importance,  486 
peiiod  for,  487 
Spencer,  Herbert,  Mr. :  the  con- 
crete in  education,  217 


Spencer,  Herbert,  Mr. :  on  plea 
sure  of  action,  230 
on    natural    consequences, 

263 
on  child  and  generalisation, 

331 
on    self-development,    344, 

350 
on  progress  from  indefinite 

to  definite,  401 
on  mental  heredity,  448 
Stein  :  on  education,  19 
Stimulation  :  principle  of,  89 
gradation  in,  90 
and  nature  90 
Stimuli :  their  nature,  459 
Stow,  David :  on  use  of  words  in 

teaching,  434 
Sub-consciousness  :  what  it    is, 
69 
and  attention,  70 
Sully,  Dr.  ;  on  history  of  educa- 
tion, 32 

on  interest  in  education,  130 
on  habits,  134 
on  distinct  ideas,  388 
on  words  and  ideas,  425 
Sympathetic  control :   principle 

of,  236 
Sympathy :  and  interest,  125 

in  collective  education,  471 
Symbolism :    principle    of,   351, 

417 
Synthesis  :  nature  of,  336 


Teacheb,  a :  in  early  times,  2, 5 
what  is  meant  by,  481 
not  necessarily  an  educa- 
tionist, 521 

Teaching  :  a  primitive  art,  2,  6 
growth  of  art  of  7,  13 

Text-books  :  use  of  in  education, 
247,  251,  422 

Thought :  its  origin,  314 
and  language,  314 
and  will,  314 


536 


INDEX 


Thought :  and  feeliDg,  315 
and  percepts,  315 
and  images,  315 
Thring,  Mr.  :  on  use  of  words, 
367 
on  thought  and  words,  434 
on  proportion  in  education, 
495 
Time  :  in  education,  120,  124 
Tradition :  in  education,  2,  404 
Training :  mental  and  physical, 
108, 
of  senses,  228 
Tyndall,  Professor :  on  self -effort 
in  learning,  343 

u 

Ubbbbweg  :  on  knowledge,  368 
UtiUty  value :  what  it  is,  107, 
113 

how  judged,  113 

how  imparted,  116 

and  interest,  129 

W 

Ward,  J.  Dr. :  on  education,  19 

on  distinctness  of  ideas,  381 

Watson,  Foster,    Professor :   on 

value  of  history  of  education, 

31 


Weber  (and  Fechner):  law  of,  228 
Welldon,  J.  E.  C,  Mr. :  on  words 

and  ideas,  422 
Wells,  H.  G. ,  Mr. :  on  sympathetic 
control,  246 
on  analysis  and  synthesis, 

365 
on  use  of  books  in  educa- 
tion, 424 
Widgery,  W.  H.,  Mr. :  on  doing 
in  education,  273 
on  sympathetic  control,  273 
Wilderspin :     on    training    the 

senses,  272 
Willing :  an  example  of,  47 
what  it  is,  75 
kinds  of,  77,  79 
origin  of  higher  forms,  78 
elements  of,  81 
higher  forms  of,  87 
and  interest,  122 
and  self-activity,  140 
development  of,  165, 179 
and  the  body,  193 
Wormwell,   B. ,  Dr. :  on  kinder- 
garten principles,  436 


Youth  :  some  characteristics  oL 
23,  181,  252 


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